ST  RATED 


&  BROTH F.RS 


GIFT  or 

Dr.   H.I.   Prlestle: 


EDUCATION  DEPT. 


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GEO  GRAPH\1 


WITH   MAPS  4^1|\41,LUSTRATIONS 


PREPARED  EXPRESSi:v^  FOR  THIS  WORK 

BY  EMINENT  AMERICAN  ARTISTS 


NEW    YORK 

HARPER    &    BROTHERS 

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PUBLISHERS'   ADVERTISEMENT. 


In  presenting  to  the  public  this  work  on  geography,  the  publishers 
respectfully  invite  the  attention  of  Boards  of  Education,  teachers,  and 
parents  to  the  following  statement  of  its  plan  and  leading  features : 

The  study  of  geography  is  now,  much  more  than  at  any  former  pe- 
riod, an  essential  element  in  education.  It  is  second  in  importance 
only  to  reading,  writing,  and  rudimentary  arithmetic.  The  newspaper 
is  and  must  continue  to  be  the  chief  source  of  that  knowledge  of  cur- 
rent events  which  is  indispensable  to  every  intelligent  person.  Its 
telegrams  and  other  items  and  articles  necessarily  assume  that  the 
reader  possesses  a  knowledge  of  certain  geographical  facts.  It  is  the 
aim  of  this  work  to  present  and  impress  these-facts. 

To  this  end  the  careful  selection  and  arrangement  of  topics  have 
been  regarded  as  matters  of  prime  necessity  in  order  to  insure  such  a 
unity  of  plan  as  to  present  a  simple,  yet  practical,  definite,  and  coher- 
ent view  of  the  subject. 

The  geography  of  commerce  has  been  made  the  leading  line  of 
thought,  because  commerce,  domestic  and  foreign,  is  becoming  more 
and  more  a  dominant  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  leading  nations  of 
the  world,  and  because  no  other  department  of  the  general  subject 
presents  in  such  bold  relief  their  rivalries  and  mutual  dependencies. 
It  involves  a  systematic  presentation  of  the  resources  and  industries 
of  countries  as  dependent  upon  climate,  soil,  mineral  deposits,,  and 
other  physical  conditions.  It  also  includes  all  important  information 
concerning  cities  and  towns  as  commercial,  manufacturing,  and  mining 
centres,  and  an  outline  of  the  system  of  transportation,  domestic  and 
international.  The  tables  of  reference  show  the  total  imports  and 
exports  of  all  the  maritime  nations,  and  particularly  the  commerce  of 
each  of  these  countries  with  the  United  States. 

The  work  is  essentially  in  two  distinct  parts — a  physical  geography 
and  a  political  geography.  The  physical  geography  is  treated  with 
sufficient  fulness,  and  presents  no  difficulty  greater  than  the  de- 
scription of  a  chain  of  mountains  or  of  the  course  of  a  river.  A 
systematic  outline  of  this  department  will  be  found  in  the  questions  of 
the  general  review.  Each  of  the  two  parts  has  a  series  of  special 
maps,  exercises,  and  descriptions.     Each  series  is  complete  in  itself, 


and  may  be  so  taught  if  it  be  thought  desirable.  Again,  by  a  differ- 
ence in  type  and  by  the  arrangement  of  the  questions,  each  series  pre- 
sents the  choice  of  a  simple  outline  or  a  fuller  course. 

The  questions  are  so  clearly  related  to  the  maps  and  the  text  as  tc 
avoid  the  serious  difficulties  which  frequently  arise  from  obscurity  in 
this  connection.  The  cities  and  towns  called  for  by  the  text  are  at 
once  pointed  out  both  by  the  prominence  of  the  type  and  by  a  peculiar 
device  of  color  which  will  be  found  upon  the  maps. 

Among  the  many  other  original  matters  of  great  practical  importanca 
to  pupils  and  teachers  are  the  map  showing  the  divisions  and  subdivis' 
ions  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Industrial  and  Commercial  Map  of 
the  United  States,  exhibiting  the  leading  industries  and  resources  of  tha 
country,  and  its  various  existing  and  proposed  systems  of  transportation 
by  railroad,  coast  lines,  and  interior  water-ways,  the  whole  for  the  first  time 
so  simply  and  clearly  presented  as  to  be  easily  committed  to  memory. 

The  definitions  are  few  and  brief,  and,  like  the  rest  of  the  work,  arc 
expressed  in  the  simplest  language  which  the  subject  will  allow. 

The  map-drawing  exercises  and  the  tabular  reviews  are  simple  and 
practical,  and  will  commend  themselves  to  teachers. 

The  perfect  clearness  and  legibility  of  the  maps  and  the  character 
of  the  type  used  in  the  text  prevent  injury  to  the, sight  of  the  pupil 
and  teacher. 

In  view  of  the  limited  time  which  can  be  given  to  geography  in 
school,  this  treatise  has  been  made  as  concise  as  possible,  without  lim- 
iting its  comprehensiveness.  This  is  not  only  very  desirable  in  itself, 
but  was  made  necessary  by  the  large  type  and  the  great  space  given  to 
the  instructive  pictorial  illustrations.  While  great  care  has  been  taken 
to  reject  all  matter  not  strictly  relevant,  it  is  believed- that'  no  other 
School  Geography  presents  so  many  essential  facts  and  principles  io 
so  few  words. 

The  character  of  the  type  and  the  quality  of  the  illustrations, 
maps,  paper,  and  binding  of  this  work  leave  it  without  a  rival  in 
the  beauty  and  excellence  of  its  mechanical  execution. 

The  work  in  all  its  details  shows  that  the  author  is  a  practical  teach- 
er, to  whom  the  difficulties  of  the  class-room  are  thoroughly  familiar. 


Franklin  Square,  New  York,  January,  1876. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1875,  by  Harper  &  Brothers,  in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 

Patent  for  color-mark  used  on  Maps  applied  for. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


PACE 

I.  The  Earth  :  Its  Shape  and  Size,  ....  1 

II.  Motions  of  the  Earth, 2 

III.  Circles  of  the  Earth, 3 

IV.  Latitude. — Longitude. — Zones,         ...  3 
V.  Globes  and  Maps, -4 

VI.  Divisions  of  the  Land, 5 

VII.  Elevations  of  the  Land, 5 

VIII.  Divisions  of  the  Water, 6 

IX.  Divisions  of  Geography, 6 

Map-Drawing, 7 

X.  Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  Western   Hemi- 
sphere,          8 

XI.  Review  Exercises 8 

XII.  Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere,          10 

XIII.  Review  Exercises, 10 

XIV.  Continents, 12 

XV.  Islands, 12 

XVI.  Mountains,      .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .13 

XVII.  Plateaus  or  Table- lands,  .        .        .        .        .  13 

XVIII.  Lowland  Plains, 14 

XIX.  Oceans, 14 

XX.  Drainage  Waters. — Rivers,  .        .        ,        .        .14 

XXI.  Lakes. — Glaciers  and  Icebergs,         ...  15 

XXII.  Ocean  Currents,    .        .        .        .        .        .        .16 

XXIIL  Winds 16 

XXIV.  Climate 17 

XXV.  Races  of  Men,    .        .        .        .        .        ,        .  18 

XXVI.  Conditions  of  Society, 18 

XXVII.  Government, 18 

XXVIII.  Questions    on    the    Physical    Map    of    North 

America, 21 

XXIX.  Description  of  Physical  North  America,      .  19 
XXX.  Climate,  Vegetation,  and   Animals    of   North 

America, 19 

XXXI.  Questions    on    the    Political    Map   of    North 

America,  .        . 22 

XXXIL  Review  Exercises, 22 

XXXIII.  Questions  on  the  Physical  Map  of  the  United 

States, 24 

XXXIV.  Position,   Area,  and   Surface    of    the   United 

States,         .        . 24 

XXXV.  Western  Half  of  the  United  States,    .        ,  24 

XXXVI.  Eastern  Half  of  the  United  States,  .        ,        .26 

XXXVII.  Divisions  and  Subdivisions  of  the  United  States,  29 

XXXVIII.  Review  of  Political  Map  of  the  United  States,  33 


XXXIX. 
XL. 

XLI. 

XLIL 

XLIII. 

XLIV. 

XLV. 

XLVI. 

XLVII. 

XLVIIL 

XLIX. 

L. 

LI. 

LH. 

Lin. 

LIV. 

LV. 
LVI. 


LVII. 

LVIII. 

LIX. 

LX. 

LXI. 
LXII. 

LXIII. 

LXIV. 

LXV. 

LXVI. 

LXVII. 

LXVIII. 

LXIX. 

LXX. 

LXXI. 

Lxxn. 

LXXIIL 


PAG& 

Description  of  Political  United  States,  .  .  33 
Government  of  the  United  States,  .  .  .  .35 
Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  North  Atlantic  or 

New  England  States, 37 

Review  Exercises, 37 

Description  of  the  North  Atlantic  or  New  En- 
gland States, 37 

Questions  on  the   Map  of  the  Middle  Atlantic 

States 41 

Review  Exercises, 41 

Description  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  .  .41 
Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  South  Atlantic  and 

South  Central  States, 44 

Review  Exercises, 44 

Description  of  the  South  Atlantic  States,  .        .  46 

Description  of  the  South  Central  States,  .  .  47 
Questions   on    the    Map   of   the    North  Central 

States, 48 

Review  Exercises, 48 

Description  of  the  North  Central  States,  .  .  50 
Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  West  Central  States 

and  States  of  the  Plains  :  Northern  Divisions,  53 

Review  Exercises, 53 

Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  West  Central  States 
and  States  of  the  Plains  :  Southern  Divis- 
ions,           54 

Review  Exercises, 54 

Description  of  the  West  Central  States,        .        .  53 

Description  of  the  States  of  the  Plains,  .  .  56 
Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  Western  or  Highland 

States, 59 

Review  Exercises, 59 

Description  of  the  Western  States:  Rocky  Mount- 
ain Division, 59 

Description  of  the  Western  States  :  Basin  Division,  61 

Description  of  the  Western  States  ;  Pacific  Division,  62 

Industries  of  the  United  States,  ....  64 

Transportation, 64 

Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  68 

Review  Exercises, 68 

Description  of  Canada  and  Newfoundland,  .  .  68 
Questions  on  the  Map  of  Mexico,  Central  America, 

AND  THE  West  Indies, 73 

Review  Exercises, 73 

Description  of  Mexico,    .        .        .        .        .        .  71 

Description  of  Central  America,      .        .        .        .71 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


LXXIV.  Description  of  the  West  Indies,  .... 
LXXV.  Questions  on  the  Physical  Map  of  South  Amer- 
ica,   

LXXVI.  Surface  of  South  America, 

LXXVII.  Questions  on  the  Political  Map  of  South  Amer- 
ica,   

LXXVIIL  Review  Exercises, 

LXXIX.  Description  of  Political  South  America, 
LXXX.  Questions  on  the  Physical  Map  of  Europe, 
LXXXI.  Description  of  Physical  Europe, 
LXXXII.  Questions  on  the  Political  Map  of  Europe, 

■    LXXXIII.  Review  Exercises, 

LXXXIV.  Governments  and  Population  of  Europe,    . 
LXXXV.  Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  British  Isles, 

LXXXVI.  Review  Exercises, 

LXXXVII.  Description  of  the  British  Isles, 
LXXXVIII.  Questions  on  the  Map  of  Western  and  Central 

Europe, 

LXXXIX.  Review  Exercises, 

XC.  Description  of  Western  and  Central  Europe,  . 
XCI.  Description   of   Austria,  Turkey,  Greece,  and 
Denmark,         ....... 

XCII.  Questions  on  the  Map  of  the  German  Empire, 
Netherlands,  and  Belgium,      .        .        .        . 

XCI  1 1.  Review  Exercises, 


PAGE 

73 


70 
76 

78 
78 
78 
83 
83 
86 
86 
88 
88 
88 
90 


93 
93 
93 

95 

97 
98 


XCIV. 

XCV. 

XCVI. 

XCVII. 

XCVIII. 

XCIX. 

C. 

CI. 

CII. 

cm. 

CIV. 

cv. 

CVI. 

evil. 

CVIII. 
CIX. 

ex. 

CXI. 


Description  of  the  German  Empire,  Netherlands, 

and  Belgium, gg 

Questions  on  the  Physical  Map  of  Asia,       .        .       101 

Description  of  Physical  Asia, 103 

Questions  on  the  Political  Map  of  Asia,      .        .      103 

Review  Exercises, 103 

Description  of  Political  Asia,  ....  105 
Description  of  British  India  and  Indo-China,  .  .  107 
Description  of  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Beloochistan, 

Arabia,  and  Turkey, 108 

Questions  on  the  Map  of  Oceanica  and  the  Phys- 
ical Map  of  Australia, no 

Review  Exercises, no 

Description  of  Oceanica, 112 

Questions  on  the  Physical  and  Political  Map  of 

Africa 115 

Review  Exercises, 115 

Description  of  Physical  Africa,  .  .  .  .116 
Description  of  Political  Africa,  .  .  .  .117 
Description  of  Caucasian  Africa,  .        .        .        .118 

Description  of  Negro  Africa, 119 

General  Review  Exercises,    ....       122,123 

Cartography,       124 

Tables, .125 

Pronouncing  Vocabulary,  .        .        .        .    126,127,128 


MAPS. 


PAGE 

Western  Hemisphere, 9 

Eastern  Hemisphere,      .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  11 

Physical  North  America, 20 

Political  North  America, 23 

Physical  United  States, 25 

United  States  in  Groups,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .  28 

Political  United  States, 30,31 

North  Atlantic  or  New  England  States,  ....  36 

Middle  Atlantic  States, 40 

South  Atlantic  and  South  Central  States,       ...  45 

North  Central  States,     ........  49 

West  Central  States  and  States  of  the  Plains  :  Northern 

Division, 52 

West  Central  States  and  States  of  the  Plains  :  Southern 

Division, 55 

Western  or  Highland  States,       .        .        .        .        .        .  68 


PAGE 

Commercial  and  Industrial  United  States,  .        .        .       66,  67 

Dominion  of  Canada, 69 

Mexico,  Central  America,  and  West  Indies,    .        .        .        .72 

Physical  South  America, 74 

Political  South  America, 79 

Physical  Europe, 82 

Political  Europe, 87 

British  Isles, 89 

Western  and  Central  Europe, 92 

German  Empire,  Netherlands,  and  Belgium,        ...        97 

Physical  Asia, 1^0 

Political  Asia, .       102 

Oceanica  and  Physical  Australia, HI 

Physical  and  Political  Africa, H^ 

Map    of    the    Principal    Ocean    Trade    Routes    of    the 
World, 120, 121 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


THE  EAETH:  ITS  SHAPE  AND  SIZE. 

1.  Geog;raphy  is  a  description  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  of  its  countries  and  their  inhabitants. 

2.  The  shape  of  the  earth  is  nearly  that  of  a  ball, 
globe,  or  sphere. 

The  earth  does  not  appear  to  be  shaped  like  a  ball, 
but  looks  like  a  large  plain,  stretching  out  in  every  di- 
rection. The  reason  of  this  is  that  we  see  only  a  small 
part  of  it  at  one  time. 

Note. — To  ensure  correct  conceptions  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  lessons  on  Mathematical  Geography  be  illustrated  by  means 
of  a  globe. 


3.  We  know  that  the  earth  is  shaped  like  a  ball  from 
the  following  facts : 

First.  Ships  have  sailed  around  it. 

Second.  When  a  ship  sails   away  from  the  land,  the 

hull  or  body  first  disappears  from  sight,  then  the 

sails,  and  last  the  tops  of  the  masts. 
When  a  ship  is  coming  in  from  sea,  the  tops  of  the 

masts  are  seen  first,  then  the  sails,  and  lastly  the  hull 

or  body.     If  the  surface  of  the  water  were  flat,  the 

hull  would  be  seen  as  soon  as  the  masts. 
In  like  manner,  in  travelling  across  broad  plains  we 

see  the  tops  of  distant  mountains  long  before  their 

bases  are  visible. 


THE  EARTH:    SHAPE,  SIZE,  AND  MOTIONS. 


Third.  The  shadow  which  the   earth  casts   upon  the 

moon  is  always  circular. 
A  ball  or  sphere  being  the  only  body  that  always  casts 
a  circular  shadow,  we  conclude  that  the  earth  has 
the  shape  of  a  ball  or  sphere. 
4.  A  diameter  of  a  sphere  is  any  straight  line  drawn 
through  the   centre   from    surface  to 
surface. 

The  diameter  of  the  earth  is  nearly 
eight  thousand  miles. 

5.  A  circumftrence  of  a  sphere 
is  the  greatest  distance  around  it. 
The  circumference  of  the  earth  is 
nearly  twenty-five  thousand  miles. 

6.  Thcjsurface  of  the  earth  contains  nearly  two  hun- 
dred millions  of  square  miles. 

7.  The  horiaion  is  that  circle  upon  which  the  earth 
and  the  sky  appear  to  meet. 

That  point  of  the  horizon 
towards  which  your  shadow 
falls  at  noon  is  called  north.* 
The  opposite  point  is  called 
south.  If  you  face  the 
north,  your  right  hand  is  to- 
wards the  east,  and  your  left  hand  is  towards  the  ivest. 

8.  North,  east,  south,  and  west  are  called  the  cardinal 


points  of  the  horizon. 

!I0KT1 


NORTH 


SOUTH 


The  points  midway  between  these 
are  called  northeast,  southeast, 
southwest,  and  northwest. 

9.  The  compass  is  an  instru- 
ment used  by  mariners  and  sur- 
veyors. It  consists  of  a  circular 
card  representing  the  horizon  and 
its  points.  Over  the  centre  of  the 
card  is  a  magnetic  needle,  balanced 
on  a  pivot :  this  needle  points  to- 
wards the  north. 


Questions. — What  does  this  section  tell  about? — 1.  What  is  geography? — 
2.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  earth?  How  does  the  earth  appear  to  us?  Why  is  this? 
— 3.  What  is  the  first  fact  by  which  we  know  that  the  earth  is  a  globe?  The  second 
fact?  The  third  fact? — 4.  What  is  a  diameter  of  a  sphere?  How  long  is  the  earth's 
diameter? — r».  What  is  a  circumference  of  a  sphere?  How  long  is  the  earth's  cir- 
cumference?— 6.  How  many  square  miles  in  the  surface  of  the  earth? — 7.  What  is 
the  horizon?  Which  way  is  north,  south,  etc.? — 8.  Which  are  the  cardinal  points? 
The  points  between  these? — !).  Desciibe  the  compass. 

•  This  is  true  only  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 


NorthPole 


II. 

MOTIONS  OF  THE  EAETH. 

1.  The  earth  has  two  constant  motions,  the  daily  and 
the  annual. 

2.  The  daily  motion  of  the  earth  is  its  rotation  on 
one  of  its  diameters.  The  direction  of  the  motion  is 
from  west  to  east :  this  causes  the  sun  to  appear  to  move 
from  east  to  west.  The  sun  appears  to  rise  in  the  east 
because  the  place  where  we  are  is  moving  towards  it;  it 
appears  to  set  in  the  west  because  the  place  where  we 
are  is  moving  from  it. 

The  diameter  on  which  the  earth  turns  is  called  its 
axis.  The  time  in  which  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis  is 
called  a  day. 

3.  The  daily  rotation  causes  the  succession  of  day 
and  nig^iit.  Each  place  is  carried  into  the  sunlight,  and 
then  into  the  shade  of  the  earth. 

4.  Tiie  poles  are  the  points  at  the  ends  of  the  axis. 
One  is  called  the  North  Pole,  the  other  the  South  Pole. 

5.  The  swiftness  of  the  rotation  has  caused  the  earth  to 
be  slightly  flattened  at  the  poles,  and 
to  bulge  out  a  little  midway  between 
them.  A  globe  flattened  at  the  poles 
is  called  an  oblate  spheroid.  The 
length  of  the  earth's  axis,  or  shortest 
diameter,  is  7899  miles;  the  longest 
diameter  is  7925  miles.  The  greatest 
circumference  is  24,899  miles. 

Note. — The  polar  diameter  is  about  one  three-hundredth  less  than  the  equatorial. 

6.  The  earth  moves  around  the  sun  in  a  nearly  circu- 
lar path,  called  its  orbit.  The  time  in  which  the  earth 
revolves  around  the  sun  is  called  a  year.  It  contains 
nearly  365J  days.  This  motion  is  called  the  annual 
revolution. 

*  7.  The  axis  of  the  earth  is  inclined  to  its  orbit.     This 
inclination  never  changes. 

8.  The  annual  revolution  of  the  earth  and  the  inclina- 
tion of  its  axis  cause  the  change  of  the  seasons. 

Questions.— What  does  this  section  tell  about?— 1.  How  many  motions  has 
the  earth?  What  are  they.'— 2.  What  is  the  daily  motion  of  the  earth?  In  what 
direction  is  it  ?  How  does  the  sun  appear  to  move  ?  Why  does  it  appear  to  rise  and 
set  ?  What  is  the  .-ucis  of  the  earth  ?  What  is  a  day  ?— 3.  What  is  caused  by  the  daily 
rotation  of  the  earth  ?— 4.  What  are  the  poles  ?  What  are  they  called  ?—;■>.  What  effect 
has  the  swiftness  of  the  rot.ation?  What  name  is  given  to  the  true  shape  of  the 
earth  ?  What  is  an  oblate  spheroid  ?  How  many  miles  difference  between  the  longest 
and  the  shortest  diameter  ?  How  long  is  the  greatest  circumference  ?— 6.  What  other 
motion  has  the  earth  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  its  path  ?  Its  name  ?  What  is  a  year  ? 
How  long  is  it?— 7.  What  is  the  position  of  the  earth's  axis?  Does  the  inclination 
change  ?— 8.  What  cause  the  change  of  the  seasons  ? 


South  Pole 


THE   CIRCLES   OF  THE   EARTH.— LATITUDE.— LONGITUDE.— ZONES. 


3 


III. 

THE  CIRCLES  OF  THE  EARTH. 

1.  The  circles  of  the  earth*  are  lines  imagined  to 
be  drawn  on  its  surface. 

These  circles  are  of  two  kinds — great  circles  and  small 
circles. 

2.  A  g^reat  circle  is  one  that  divides  the  earth  into 
two  equal  parts.  Each  of  these  parts  is  called  a  hemi- 
sphere, which  means  a  half-sphere. 

3.  A  small  circle  is  one  that  divides  the  earth  into 
two  unequal  parts. 

4.  Every  circle  is  divided  into  360  equal  parts  called 
degrees ;  each  degree  is  divided 
into  60  equal  parts  called  min- 
utes ;  and  each  minute  into  60 
equal  parts  called  seconds. 


DEGREES   OF   THE   CIRCLE. 


The  smaller  the  circle,  the  short- 
er are  the  degrees.      Degrees 
are  marked  °,  minutes  ',  and  seconds  '.     Thus  twelve  degrees, 
fifteen  minutes,  and  ten  seconds  are  written  12°  15'  10  ". 

5.  The  Equator  is  that  great  circle  which  is  midway 
between  the  poles.  It  divides  the  earth, into  a  Northern 
and  a  Southern  Hemisphere. 

■  NORTH   POLE. 

NORTH   POLE 


SOUTH   POLE. 


SOUTH    POLE. 


6.  Meridian  circles  are  those  great  circles  which 
pass  through  the  poles.  Each  divides  the  earth  into  an 
Eastern  and  a  Western  Hemisphere. 

7.  A  meridian  is  half  of  a  meridian  circle,  and  ex- 
tends from  pole  to  pole. 

8.  Parallels  are  small  circles  parallel  to  the  Equator. 
The  principal  parallels  are  the  two  tropics  and  the  two 
polar  circles. 


•  In  Geometry,  a  distinction  is  made  between  the  circle  and  its  boundary  line  or 
drcumference.  The  circle  is  really  the  space  or  surface  bounded  by  the  circumfer- 
ence.    This  distinction  is  not  necessary  in  Geography. 


NORTH  POLE 


9.  The  tropics  are  those  parallels  which  are  23-J  de- 
grees from  the  Equator.  The  northern  is  called  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  the 
southern  the  Tropic  of  Cap- 
ricorn. 

10.  The  polar  circles 
are  those  parallels  which  are 
23|^  degrees  from  the  poles. 
The  northern  is  called  the 
Arctic  Circle,  and  the  south- 
ern the  Antarctic  Circle. 


«3V8 


SSH  jr. 


'»),». 


SOUTH  POLE 
THE  CIRCLES  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  are  the  circles  of  the  earth  ?  How  many  kinds  of  circles  .> 
What  are  they? — 3.  What  is  a  great  circle.'  What  is  a  hemisphere? — 3.  What  is  a 
small  circle  ? — i.  How  is  every  circle  divided  ?  How  are  degrees  divided  ?  How  are 
minutes  divided.' — 5.  What  is  the  Equator?  Into  what  does  it  divide  the  earth.' — 
6.  What  are  meridian  circles?  Into  what  does  each  divide  the  earth? — 7.  What  is  a 
meridian  ? — 8.  What  are  parallels?  Which  are  the  principal  parallels. — 9.  What  are 
the  tropics?  Give  the  name  of  each? -10  What  are  the  polar  circles?  Give  the 
name  of  each  ? 

(II.)— Read  32°  15' 47'  ;  49"  11  37''.  Which  is  larger,  a  degree  of  the  Equator  or 
of  a  tropic  ?  Why  ?  Of  the  Equator  or  of  a  meridian  ?  Why  ?  Of  a  tropic  or  of  the 
Arctic  Circle  ?  Why  ?  Which  is  the  greater,  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  or  the  North- 
ern ?  Why  ?  How  many  meridian  circles  may  there  be  ?  How  many  Equators  ? 
How  many  parallels  ?     How  many  meridians  ? 


IV 

LATITUDE.-LONGITUDE.-ZONES. 

1.  Latitude  is  distance  north  or  south  from  the  Equa- 
tor. It  is  measured,  in  degrees,  on  a  meridian.  Places 
between  the  Equator  and  the  North  Pole  are  in  north 
latitude ;  those  between  the  Equator  and  the  South  Pole 
are  in  south  latitude ;  those  on  the  Equator  have  no  lati- 
tude. The  poles  have  the  greatest  possible  latitude, 
which  is  90  degrees. 

2.  liong^itude  is  distance  east  or  west  from  a  selected 
meridian.  It  is  measured,  in  degrees,  on  the  Equator  or 
any  parallel.  The  selected  meridian  is  called  the  first 
meridian. 

The  meridian  in  most  common  use  is  that  which  passes  through 
Greenwich  Observatory,  near  London.  In  the  United  States 
the  meridian  of  Washington  is  sometimes  used ;  in  France  that 
of  Paris ;  in  Germany  that  of  Berlin  ;  etc. 


Places  on  the  first  meridian  have  no  longitude, 
greatest  longitude  is  180  degrees,  east  or  west. 


The 


A  degree  of  any  great  circle  measures  60  geographical  miles,  or 
about  69^  statute  miles  of  the  United  States.  A  degree  on  the 
parallel,  of  00°  is  just  half  as  long. 

3.  Zones  are  broad  belts  or  divisions  of  the  earth's 
surface  parallel  to  the  Equator.  They  are  bounded  by 
the  tropics  and  the  polar  circles. 


ZONES.— GLOBES   AND   MAPS. 


4.  There  are  live  zones :  one  Torrid,  two  Temperate, 
and  two  Frigid  Zones. 

5.  The  Torrid   Zone  extends  from   the  Tropic   of 
Cancer  to  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

Torrid  means  hot.  This  zone  is  the  hottest  part  of  the  earth, 
because  the  sun  is  always  shining  directly  down  upon  some 
part  of  it.  It  is  47  degrees  wide,  or  23^  degrees  on  each  side 
of  the  Equator,  and  is  the  largest  zone. 

6.  The  North  Frigid  Zone  extends  from  the  Arctic 
Circle  to  the  North  Pole. 

The  Sonth  Frigid  Zone  extends  from  the  Antarctic 
Circle  to  the  South  Pole. 

Frigid  means  frozen.  The  Frigid  Zones  are  the  coldest  parts  of 
the  earth,  because  the  sun  shines  upon  each  of  them  during  only 
a  part  of  the  year,  and  with  very  slanting  rays.  Each  extends 
23^  degrees  from  the  pole  at  its  centre.  They  are  the  smallest, 
least  important,  and  least  known  of  the  zones.  The  South  Frigid 
Zone  is  not  known  to  have  one  human  inhabitant. 

7.  The  North  Temperate  Zone  extends  from  the 
Arctic  Circle  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer. 

The   i^onth   Temperate   Zone    extends    from    the 

Antarctic  Circle  to  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

Temperate  means  moderate.  Each  of  the  Temperate  Zones  is  43 
degrees  wide.  The  North  Temperate  Zone  is  the  most  impor- 
tant portion  of  the  world.  It  contains  nearly  three  fourths  of 
the  human  race. 

Note. — The  axis  of  the  earth  is  inclined  2,3J  degrees  towards  its  orbit.  This 
determines  the  breadth  of  the  several  zones, _the  tropics  being  23J  degrees 
from  the  Equator,  and  the  polar  circles  being  23J  degrees  from  the  Poles. 

The  fbur  seasons,  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  win- 
ter, are  found  only  in  the  Temperate  Zones. 


MAP  OF  THE  ZONES. 


NORTH    POLE. 


SOUTH  POLB. 


SOUTH   POLE. 


Questions  (I.) — 1 .  What  is  latitude  ?  How  is  it  measured  ?  On  what  ?  In  what 
directions?  What  places  are  in  north  latitude?  In  south  latitude?  What  places 
have  no  latitude  ?  What  places  have  the  greatest  latitude  ?  How  many  degrees .' — 
2.  What  is  longitude  ?  How  is  it  measured  ?  On  what?  In  what  directions  ?  What 
is  the  name  of  the  meridian  from  which  longitude  is  reckoned  ?  What  places  have 
no  longitude  ?  What  is  the  greatest  longitude  a  place  can  have  ? — 3.  What  are  zones  ? 
By  what  are  they  bounded  ? — 4.  How  many  zones  are  there  ?  Name  them. — 5.  Where 
is  the  Torrid  Zone  ?— 6.  The  North  Frigid  ?  The  South  Frigid  ?— 7.  The  North  Tem- 
perate Zone  ?  The  South  Temperate  Zone  ?  Which  zones  have  four  seasons  during 
the  year  ? 

(II.)— 2.  What  meridian  is  in  most  common  use?  What  meridian  is  sometimes 
used  in  the  United  States?  In  England  ?  In  France  ?  In  Germany  ?— 3.  How  many 
miles  in  a  degree  of  a  great  circle  ?    On  the  parallel  of  G0°  f— o.  Which  is  the  hottest 


zone  ?  Why  ?  What  does  its  name  mean  ?  How  wide  is  it  ?  What  great  circle 
passes  through  the  middle  of  it  ? — (!.  Which  zones  are  the  coldest  parts  of  the  earth  ? 
Why  ?  What  does  their  name  mean  ?  What  point  in  the  centre  of  each  ?  How  wide 
are  they  ? — 7.  How  wide  are  the  Temperate  Zones  ?  What  does  their  name  mean  ? — 
Which  is  the  largest  zone?  The  smallest?  The  hottest?  The  least  important? 
Why  ?  The  most  important  ?  Why  ?  Where  are  the  coldest  parts  of  the  Temperate 
Zones?    Where  are  the  warmest  parts? 


V. 

GLOBES  AND  MAPS. 

MAP  OF  THE  WORLD. 


1.  The  surface  of  the  earth  may  be  represented  by 
globes  and  maps. 

2.  A  globe  is  a  sphere  representing  the  form  of  the 
earth,  its  circles,  and  the  principal  divisions  of  the  land 
and  water. 

3.  A  map  is  a  representation  of  the  whole  or  a  part  of 
the  earth's  surface  on  a  plane. 

A  plane  is  a  flat  surface.  The  surface  of  a  sphere  can  not  be 
exactly  represented  upon  a  plane.  Small  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface  can  be  more  correctly  represented  upon  maps  than  very 
large  ones. 

4.  Parallels  cross  the  map  from  side  to  side ;  meridians, 
from  top  to  bottom.  East  is  in  the  direction  of  the  par- 
allels towards  the  right ;  west,  towards  the  left.  North 
is  in  the  direction  of  the  meridians  towards  the  top; 
south,  towards  the  bottom. 

5.  Figures  showing  the  latitude  are  placed  on  the  sides 
of  the  map;  those  showing  the  longitude  are  placed  at 
the  top  and  the  bottom. 

Exception. — In  the  maps  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Hemispheres  the  longitude  is  marked  on  the  Equator. 

Questions  (I.)— 1.  How  may  the  surface  of  the  earth  be  represented  ?— 2.  What  is 
a  globe? — 3.  What  is  a  map?— 4.  How  are  parallels  represented  upon  a  map?  How 
are  meridians  represented?  Which  way  is  east?  West?  North?  South?— 
5.  Where  are  the  figures  showing  the  latitude  placed  ?  Those  showing  the  longitude  ? 
What  exception  ? 

(11.) — 3.  What  is  a  plane  ?  Can  the  surface  of  a  sphere  be  exactly  represented  upon 
a  map  ?  Why  ?  (Experiment  with  the  peel  of  half  of  an  orange.)  Which  can  be  made 
the  more  accurate,  a  map  of  a  large  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  or  one  of  a  small 
portion  ?  Why  ?  Wliich  represents  the  earth  with  more  exactness,  a  globe  or  a  map  ? 
Why? 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY:    DIVISIONS    AND    ELEVATIONS   OF   THE   LAND. 


NORTHERN  AND  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERES. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

VI. 

DIVISIONS  OF  THE  LAND. 

1.  The  surface 
of  the  earth  con- 
sists of  land  and 
water.  About  one 
fourth  is  land,  and 
about  three  fourths 
water. 

The  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere contains 
about  three  times 
as  much  land  as 
the  Southern ;  the 
Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere about  two 
and  a  half  times  as 
much  as  the  West- 
ern. The  earth 
may  be  so  divided 
that  nearly  all  the 
land  would  be  in 
one  hemisphere, 
and  the  other  would 
be  nearly  all  water. 

2.  The  land  sur- 
face of  the  earth  is  divided  into  continents  and  islands. 

3.  A  continent  is  a  very  large  body  of  land. 

4.  There  are  six  continents.     Four  are  in  the  Eastern 

Hemisphere — Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia.     Two 

are   in  the  Western  Hemisphere  —  North  America   and 

South  America. 

The  three  large  continents  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  are  joined 
into  one  great  land-mass  called  the  Old  World  (see  map  on 
page  4).  The  united  continents  of  the  Western  Hemisphere 
form  the  New  World.  It  is  so  called  because  discovered  only 
a  few  centuries  ago.  Some  geographers  call  the  Old  World  the 
Eastern  Continent,  and  the  New  World  the  Western  Continent 
or  the  American  Continent. 

5.  An  island  is  a  body  of  land  entirely  surrounded 
by  water. 

Australia,  the  smallest  continent,  is  much  larger  than  the  largest 
island.  The  chief  distinction  between  a  continent  and  an  island 
is  the  difference  in  size. 

6.  An  arcliipelago  is  a  group  of  islands. 

7.  A  peninsula  is  a  body  of  land  nearly  surrounded 
by  water. 

8.  A  cape  is  a  point  of  land  extending  into  the  water. 

A  mountainous  cape  is  called  a  promontory.  A  cape  is  usually 
much  smaller  than  a  peninsula. 


LAND  AND  WATER   HEMISPHERES. 


1.  Island. 

'2.  I'eninsula. 

3.  Bay. 

4.  Strait. 


NATURAL   DIVISIONS   OF    LAND   AND   WATER. 

5.  Isthmus.  0.  Lake.  IS.  Mountain.  17.  Shore. 

6.  Archipelago.  10.  Sound.  14.  Mountain  Range.  18.  Cape. 

7.  River.  11.  Hill.  IM'able-land.  19.  Volcano. 

8.  Delta.  12.  Crater.  l(i.  Plain.  20.  Sea. 


A  coast  or  shore  is  the  land  bordering  on  the  water, 
often  broken  by  peninsulas  and  capes. 


Coasts  are 


9.  An  isthmns  is  a  neck  of  land  connecting  two 
larger  bodies  of  land. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  Of  what  does  the  surface  of  the  earth  consist?  How  much  is 
land.'  How  much  is  water? — 3.  How  is  the  land  surface  divided? — 3.  What  is  a 
continent  ? — i.  How  many  continents  are  there  ?  flow  many  in  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere ?  Name  them.  How  many  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  ?  Name  them. — 
5.  What  is  an  island  ? — C  What  is  an  archipelago  ? — 7.  What  is  a  peninsula  ? — 8.  What 
is  a  cape? — 9.  What  is  an  isthmus? 

(H.)— 1.  Which  has  the  more  land,  the  Northern  Hemisphere  or  the  Southern? 
How  many  times  as  much  ?  The  Eastern  Hemisphere  or  the  Western  ?  How  many 
times  as  much  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  land  hemisphere  ? — i.  What  is  meant  by  the 
Old  World  ?  What  other  name  is  given  to  it  by  some  geographers  ?  What  is  meant 
by  the  New  World  ?  Why  so  called  ?  What  other  name  has  it  ? — 5.  How  does  the 
smallest  continent  compare  with  the  largest  island?  What  is  the  chief  distinction 
between  a  continent  and  an  island? — 7.  What  is  a  promontory?  What  is  the  chief 
difference  between  a  cape  and  a  peninsula  ?  What  is  a  coast  or  shore  ?  By  what  are 
coasts  broken  ? 


VII. 

ELEVATIONS  OF  THE  LAND. 

1.  The  chief  elevations  of  the  land  surface  are  mount- 
ains, table-lands  or  plateaus,  and  lowland  plains. 

Mountains  and  plateaus  are  sometimes  called  highlands.  The 
height  of  elevations  is  reckoned  from  the  surface  or  level  of 
the  sea. 

2.  A  mountain  is  a  very  high  elevation  of  land. 

If  the  elevation  is  not  very  high,  it  is  usually  called  a  hill. 
The  summit  of  a  mountain  is  its  highest  point ;  the  base  is  its 
foot;  the  slopes  are  its  sides. 

3.  A  range  or  chain  is  a  line  of  mountains  or  hills. 


6 


ELEVATIONS   OF  THE   LAND.— DIVISIONS   OF  THE  WATER.— DIVISIONS   OF   GEOGRAPHY. 


4.  A  volcano  is  a  mountain  which  sends  forth  flarties, 
melted  rock,  clouds  of  steam,  ashes,  or  other  heated  sub- 
stance, from  an  opening  called  a  crater. 

5.  A  table-land  or  plateau  is  a  broad  extent  of  high 
land. 

Table-lands  are  often  crossed  or  bordered  by  mountain  ranges. 
Tlie  breadth  of  a  mountain  is  generally  less  than  that  of  a 
plateau. 

6.  A  lowland  plain  is  a  broad  extent  of  land  not 
much  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

A  valley  is  land  between  hills  or  mountains.  A  desert  is  a  barren 
tract  jof  land.     An  oasis  is  a  low  fertile  spot  in  a  desert. 

7.  The  natural  divisions  of  the  land  are  continents 
and  islands.  Their  shores  have  peninsulas,  capes,  and 
isthmuses;  their  surfaces  have  mountains,  plateaus,  and 
lowland  plains. 

If  we  imagine  a  division  of  land  to  be  cut  through  from  side  to 
side  and  down  to  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  outline  representing 
the  edges  of  such  a  cut  is  called  a  section. 


IMAGINAKV   SECTION    OF   CONTINENT. 


Questions  (I.) — 1.  Name  the  three  chief  elevations  of  the  land. — 2.  What  is  a 
mountain  ? — 3.  A  range  or  chain  .' — L  A  volcano  .'  A  crater ,' — 5.  A  table  -  land  or 
plateau .' — G.  A  lowland  plain  ,' — 7.  What  are  the  natural  divisions  of  the  land  ?  What 
projections  have  their  shores  ?     What  elevations  have  their  surfaces  ? 

(II.) — 1.  What  are  mountains  and  plateaus  sometimes  called  ?  From  what  are  their 
heights  reckoned? — 2.  What  is  a  hill?  What  is  the  summit  of  a  mountain?  The 
base  ?  The  slopes  ? — 5.  Which  is  broader,  a  mountain  or  a  plateau  ?  By  what  are 
table-lands  sometimes  crossed  or  bordered  ? — G.  What  is  a  valley  ?  A  desert  ?  An 
oasis  .' — 7.  What  is  a  section  ? 


VIII. 

DIVISIONS  OF  THE  WATER. 

1.  The  waters  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  divided 
into  ocean  waters  and  drainage  waters. 

2.  The  ocean  is  the  great  body  of  salt  water  that  sur- 
rounds all  of  the  continents.  Its  five  principal  divisions 
are  also  called  oceans :  namely,  the  Atlantic,  the  Pacific, 
the  Indian,  the  Arctic,  and  the  Antarctic  Oceans, 

3.  A  sea  is  a  large  division  of  the  ocean  nearly  enclosed 
by  land.     The  ocean  itself  is  sometimes  called  the  sea. 

4.  A  g-ulf  or  bay  is  a  body  of  water  in  a  bend  of  the 

coast. 

As  there  is  but  little  difference  between  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays,  these 
names  are  sometimes  given  to  similar  bodies  of  water.  A  haven 
or  harbor  is  a  sitiall  bay  in  which  ships  are  safe  from  storms. 

5.  A  strait  or  channel  is  a  narrow  passage  connecting 
two  larger  bodies  of  water. 

A  sound  is  a  shallow  channel  or  bay. 


6.  An  ocean  current  is  a  great  stream  of  water  flow- 
ing  through  the  ocean. 

7.  The  drainage  waters,  or  waters  on  the  surface  of 
the  land,  are  rivers  and  lakes. 

8.  A  river  is  a  large  stream  of  fresh  water. 

A  river  flowing  into  another  is  called  a  branch  or  tributary.  The 
place  where  a  river  begins  or  rises  is  its  source  ;  the  place  where 
it  flows  into  a  sea,  lake,  or  another  river  is  its  mouth. 

9.  A  lake  is  a  body  of  water  wholly  or  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  land. 

10.  The  natural  divisions  of  the  water  are  oceans, 
rivers,  and  lakes.  The  subdivisions  or  arms  of  the  ocean 
are  called  seas,  gulfs,  bays,  sounds,  straits,  and  channels. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  Into  what  two  great  divisions  may  the  waters  be  divided? — 
2.  What  is  the  ocean?  To  what  else  is  the  name  given?  Name  them. — 3.  What  h> 
a  sea  ?  What  is  the  ocean  sometimes  called  ? — 4.  What  is  a  giilf  ov  bay  ? — .i.  A  strait 
or  channel? — G.  An  ocean  current? — 7.  Which  are  the  drainage  waters.' — 8.  What  is 
a  river? — 9.  What  is  a  lake.' — 10.  Name  the  natural  divisions  of  the  water.  What  are 
the  subdivisions  or  arms  of  the  ocean  called  ? 

(II.) — i.  What  three  names  are  sometimes  given  to  similar  bodies  of  water?  Why? 
What  is  a  haven  or  harbor? — 5.  What  is  a  sound.' — 8.  What  name  is  given  to  a  river 
flowing  into  another  ?     What  is  the  source  of  a  river  ?    The  mouth  ? 


IX. 

DIVISIONS  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Geography  may  be  divided  into  Mathematical  Geog- 
raphy, Physical  Geography,  and  Political  Geography. 

2.  Mathematical  Geography  is  a  description  of  the 
form,  size,  position,  motions,  circles,  and  zones  of  the  earth, 
and  of  the  relative  positions  of  places^  on  its  surface. 

3.  Physical  Geography  is  a  description  of  the  nat- 
ural divisions  of  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

It  treats,  first,  of  its  simplest  divisions  into  land,  water,  and  atmos- 
phere ;  second,  of  the  position,  distribution,  and  extent  of  the 
land  and  water,  and  of  the  great  currents  in  the  water  and  in 
the  atmosphere  ;  third,  of  the  character  of  the  climates  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  earth,  and  the  distribution  of  minerals,  plants, 
and  animals  ;  and,  fourth,  of  the  laws,  causes,  mutual  relations, 
and  consequences  of  these  facts,  and  of  many  of  those  of  Mathe- 
matical Geography. 

4.  Political  Geography  is  a  description  of  the  nations 

and  peoples  of  the  earth,  their  social  condition,  and  the 

countries  they  inhabit. 

It  includes  an  account  of  towns,  cities,  states,  industrial  produc- 
tions, and  commerce.  The  Political  Geography  of  a  country  is 
so  closely  dependent  upon  its  Physical  Geography  that  the  two 
should  be  studied  together. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  How  may  Geography  be  divided? — 2.  What  is  Mathematical 
Geography.' — ;?.  What  is  Physical  Geography? — t.  What  is  Political  Geography? 

(II.) — .3.  Of  what  does  the  first  part  of  Phy.sical  Geography  treat?  The  second? 
The  third?  The  fourth? — 4.  What  does  Political  Geography  include?  Upon  what 
is  it  dependent? 


MAP    DRAWING:   TO   THE   TEACHER.— SKETCHING    FOR    REVIEW. 


M  AP-D  RAW  I  N  G. 


TO  THE  TEACHER. 

Map-drawing,  as  a  branch  of  the  study  of  Geography,  presents  itself 
under  two  aspects  and  as  two  distinct  exercises. 

First  and  most  important,  Sketching.  This  is  an  exercise  by  means 
of  which  the  leading  facts  of  local  geography  are  rapidly  and  efficiently 
reviewed  in  the  construction  of  quickly  drawn  outline  maps,  approx- 
imately correct,  and  showing  the  actual  condition  of  the  pupil's  knowl- 
edge of  the  location  of  mountains,  rivers,  railways,  towns,  etc.  The  ex- 
ercise is  best  prepared  for  in  the  class-room  ;  it  can  then  be  gone  over 
at  home  by  the  pupil,  if  thought  desirable  ;  and  should  finally  be  re- 
viewed and  repeated  in  the  class- 
room as  the  equivalent  of  a  recita- 
tion. An  illustration  of  the  method 
is  given  below.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  chief  object  of  this  exer- 
cise is  not  to  test  the  pupil's  skill  in 
map -drawing.,  but  his  knowledge  of 
location. 

The  second  kind  of  exercise  in 
map-drawing  is  that  known  as  Car- 
tography. This  is  much  more  elab- 
orate, exact,  and  deliberate  than 
sketching,  and  aims  to  present  an 
accurate  copy  of  some  particular 
map.  It  is  a  valuable  exercise, 
training  the  pupil  to  close  and  mi- 
nute observation  both  of  the  prin- 
cipal and  of  the  less  important  con- 
tents of  the  map,  and  to  careful  and 
artistic  manipulation.  The  simplest 
and  most  efficient  method  of  pursu- 
ing this  exercise  is  illustrated  in  the 
concluding  portion  of  this  book. 

Where  circumstances  will  permit, 
it  is  advisable  that  the  exercises  in 
sketching  should  precede  those  in 
cartography.  Those,  however,  who 
choose  to  begin  with  cartography, 
and  omit  sketching  until  a  later 
stage,  may  readily  do  so. 


SEETOHma  FOE  REVIEW. 

Preparatory.  —  After  the  map 
questions  relating  to  any  state,  let  it 
be  Maine,  for .  instance,  have  been 
carefully  studied,  all  the  pupils  of 
the  class  should  take  their  slates 
and  pencils  and  sketch  the  simple 
outlines  of  the  state  with  the  map 
open  before  them;  the  sketch  should 
be  drawn  upon  as  large  a  scale  as  the  size  of  the  slate  will  conveniently 
allow. 

In  the  first  lessons  it  will  be  well  to  let  each  pupil  be  furnished  with 
a  slip  of  stiff  paper  or  card-board,  divided  into  equal  parts,  to  be  used 
in  measuring.     A  model  is  furnished  at  the  foot  of  this  page.     In  the 
second  and  more  important  review,  in  which  the  map  is  to  be  drawn 
from  memory,  the  measure  should  not  be  used.     The  exercise  will  then 
be  a  sort  of  free-hand  drawing.    The  work  will  be  quite  crude  in  the  first 
attempts,  but  with 
repetition,  practice,    I 
and  reasonable  pa- 
tience,  very    neat  I  I  I  I  I  I 
work  can  be  pro-              '      "              ~                     ~ 


OUTLINE    MAP    OF   THK  STATE   OF   MAINE. 


duced.     One  or  more  of  the  class  should  draw  the  map  on  a  large  scale 
upon  the  blackboard. 

First  Step. — Teach  the  pupils  to  estimate,  approximately,  of  course, 
the  proportion  or  relation  between  the  length  of  the  state  and  its  breadth, 
measuring  in  the  direction  of  the  meridians  and  parallels  whenever  pos- 
sible. Let  the  estimate  first  be  made  by  the  eye  only,  then  stated,  and 
lastly  tested  by  the  measuring  slip. 

Questions. — Is  Maine  longer  from  east  to  west  or  from  north  to  south.' 
(A'orlh  to  south.)     How  much  longer.'     (One  fourth.') 

Second  Step. — Lead  the  pupils  to  observe  the  number  (usually  four), 
direction,  and  length  of  the  lines  bounding  the  state,  and  whether  they 

are  straight  or  curved  or  otherwise. 
This  step  will  usually  require  more 
time  and  care  than  any  other. 

Questions. — How  many  lines  form 
the  boundary  of  Maine?  (Five.)  How 
many  of  them  are  partly  or  entirely 
straight  ?  In  what  general  direction 
does  each  lie  ?  Which  is  the  shortest 
line.'  (The  northern.)  Which  is  the 
longer  boundary,  the  northwestern 
or  the  western .'  The  eastern  bound- 
ary or  the  coast  line  ? 

Third  Step. — Draw  the  outline 
boundary. 

First  draw  lightly  the  line  of  great- 
est length,  A  A,  and  that  of  greatest 
breadth,  B  B ;  many  states  are  so 
simple  as  not  to  require  these  lines. 
Draw  the  northern  boundary;  the 
northwestern ;  the  western ;  the  east- 
ern; the  coast.  As  soon  as  the  third 
step  is  complete,  it  will  be  well  to 
inspect  the  work.  Do  the  same  at 
the  close  of  each  succeeding  step, 
or  even  after  each  separate  item. 

Fourth  Step.— Sketch  the  7nount- 
ains,  if  there  are  any. 

Questions.  —  What  mountains  in 
Maine,  and  where  are  they.'  Draw 
them. 

Fifth  Step. — Draw  the  rivers,  first 
noticing  the  direction  of  each. 

Questions. — What  boundary  river  on 
the  north  .'  Draw  or  go  over  it.  On 
the  east?  Name  the  three  chief  riv- 
ers in  the  state.  Draw  the  Penob- 
scot. The  Kennebec.  The  Andros- 
coggin.    Two  or  three  chief  lakes. 

Sixth  step. — Locate  the  principal 
cities  and  towns,  beginning  with  the 
capital.  Use  a  star  (*)  for  the  cap- 
ital, and  a  small  circle  or  dot  (o  •) 
for  the  other  cities  and  towns. 

Questions. — What  city  is  the  capital .' 
On  what  river  ?  Locate  it.  Name  and  locate  the  largest  city.  What  city 
on  the  Penobscot  ?  On  which  side  of  the  river?  Locate  it.  Where  is  Lew- 
iston  ?    Biddeford  ?     (Other  cities  and  towns  may  be  drawn  if  required.) 

Seventh  Step. — Draw  the  chief  railroads. 

Question. — Between  or  through  what  towns  and  cities  is  each  ? 
A  further  step,  involving  another  form  of  review,  is  to  require  the 
pupils  to  add  initial  letters  to  the  several  points  drawn  :  Rivers — A.  R., 
K.  R.,  P.  R.,  St.  J.  R.,  St.  C.  R.     Cities— K.,  P.,  L.,  B. 

In    rapid  work, 
~  I    the  writing  or  print- 

ing of  the  full  name 
I  I  I  I  I  I  will  take  too  much 

time. 


8 


PHYSICAL  WESTERN   HEMISPHERE:    QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP.— REVIEW  EXERCISES. 


PHYSICAL  WESTERN  HEMISPHERE. 

X. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 


Continents.— What  two  continents  are  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  ? 
By  what  isthmus  are  they  connected?  What  three  oceans  wash  the 
shores  of  North  America  ?  Which  one  is  on  the  north  ?  On  the  east  ? 
On  the  west?  What  ocean  bounds  South  America  on  the  north  and 
east?     On  the  west?     What  ocean  south? 

Islands. — What  large  island  northeast  of  North  America?  What 
island  is  east  of  it?  What  archipelago  between  Greenland  and  the 
continent?  What  island  near  the  eastern  point  of  North  America? 
What  group  southeast?  What  archipelago  between  North  and  South 
America?  Which  are  its  two  largest  islands?  What  group  north  of 
Cuba?  What  group  northeast?  What  group  at  the  southern  end  of 
South  America  ?  What  group  east  ?  What  group  in  the  Pacific  Ocean 
near  the  parallel  of  twenty  north?  Of  fifty  north?  Of  forty  south? 
What  general  name  is  given  to  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  ? 

Peninsulas. — What  peninsula  in  the  northwestern  part  of  North 
America?  In  the  eastern  part?  In  the  western  part?  What  two 
near  the  island  of  Cuba  ? 

Capes. — What  cape  at  the  southern  point  of  Greenland  ?  At  the 
eastern  point  of  Newfoundland?  At  the  southern  point  of  California? 
What  cape  of  North  America  is  near  Asia?  What  cape  opposite? 
What  cape  is  the  northern  point  of  South  America?  The  eastern 
point?     The  southern  point?     The  western  point? 

Mountains. — What  chain  of  mountains  in  the  western  part  of  North 
America  ?  In  the  eastern  part  ?  In  the  western  part  of  South  America  ? 
In  the  eastern  part  ?  On  which  side  of  South  America  are  there  many 
volcanoes?   (See  red  dots  on  the  map.)   On  which  side  of  North  America? 

Plains  and  Plateaus. — What  plateau  in  the  northern  part  of  North 
America?  What  low  plain  ?  In  the  central  part?  What  high  plains 
west  of  the  central  plain  ?  What  plateau  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  ? 
What  is  the  name  of  its  southern  part?  What  plateau  in  the  eastern 
part  of  South  America?  In  the  northern?  In  the  western?  What 
plains  in  the  southern  part  ?     North  of  the  plateau  of  Guiana  ?     South  ? 

Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Bays. — What  bay  west  of  Greenland?  What  bay  in 
the  Arctic  Plain  ?  What  gulf  west  of  Newfoundland  ?  South  of  North 
America?  What  island  and  two  peninsulas  nearly  close  that  gulf? 
What  sea  south  of  the  West  Indies?    Between  Alaska  and  Asia? 

Straits.— What  strait  connects  Behring  Sea  with  the  Arctic  Ocean? 
At  the  entrance  of  Baffin  Bay?  Of  Hudson  Bay?  Between  Cuba  and 
Florida  ?     Between  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  continent  ? 

Rivers. — What  river  flows  through  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Arctic 
Plain  ?  Into  what  ocean  ?  What  river  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence ?  From  what  lakes  ?  From  what  plain  ?  What  other  river  flows 
through  that  plain?  Into  what  gulf?  What  branch  has  it?  What 
river  of  North  America  flows  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  ?  From  what 
plateau?  Into  what  ocean  do  the  rivers  of  South  America  flow? 
Which  is  the  greatest  river  of  South  America?  Through  what  plains 
does  it  flow?  What  river  north  of  the  Amazon?  What  river  in  the 
southern  part  of  South  America  ? 

Ocean  Currents. — What  current  flows  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico? 
Across  what  ocean  ?  In  what  direction  ?  What  current  flows  from 
Bafiin  Bay?  What  current  northeast  of  South  America?  Southeast? 
West?  What  current  crosses  the  Pacific  near  the  Equator?  Near 
the  parallel  of  fifty  north  ? 

Zones. — What  circle  crosses  the  northern  part  of  North  America? 
In  what  zone  is  Cuba?  The  Sandwich  Islands?  The  Mississippi 
River?     In  what  zones  is  North  America?     South  America? 


XI. 

KEVIEW  EXEECISES. 

Continents. — How  bounded  1 

Model  for  stating  Boundaries. — South  America  is  bounded  on  the  north 

by  the  Caril)bean  Sea,  on  ihe  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  soutli  by  the 
Antarctic  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
North  America  ?     South  America  ? 

Islands. — In  what  direction  from  the  nearest  land  ?    By  what  waters 
surrounded  ? 

Model. — Newfoundland  is  east  of  North  America,  and  is  surrounded  by  the 

Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Arctic  Archipelago?  Greenland?  Iceland?  Newfoundland?  Azores? 

Bermuda  Islands?     Bahama  Islands  ?     West  Indies?     Cuba?     Hayti? 

Falkland  Islands  ?    Tierra  del  Fuego  ?    Graham  Land  ?    South  Victoria  ? 

New  Zealand  Islands?   Sandwich  Islands?  Aleutian  Islands?  Oceanica? 

Peninsulas. — From  what  part  of  the  continent  does  it  project  ?     Into 
what  water,  or  between  what  waters  ? 

Model. — California  projects  from  the  western  part  of  North  America,  between 
the  Gulf  of  California  on  the  east  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west. 
Labrador?     Florida?     Yucatan?     California?     Alaska? 

Capes.— ./^WOT  what  land  does  it  project  ?     From  what  part  of  it  f 
Into  what  body  of  water  1 

Model. — Cape  Race  projects  from  the  eastern  part  of  Newfoundland  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean. 
Farewell?    Race?    St.  Lucas?    Prince  of  Wales?    Gallinas?    Horn? 
St.  Roque?     Blanco?     East  Cape  ? 

Mountains. — In  what  part  of  ihe  continent  are  they  ?    In  what  direc- 
tions do  they  extend? 

Model.— Appalachian,  in  the  eastern  part  of  North  America,  extend  northeast 
and  southwest. 
Appalachian?     Rocky?     Brazilian?     Andes? 

Plains  and  Plateaus. —  Where  situated? 

Model. — Arctic  Plain  is  in  the  northern  part  of  North  America? 
Arctic  Plain  ?     The  Great  Plains  ?     Central  Plain  ?     Plains  of  the 
Orinoco  ?    Plains  of  the  Amazon  ?    Plains  of  La  Plata  ?    Arctic  Plateau  ? 
Western  Plateau  ?     Mexican  Plateau  ?     Plateau  of  Guiana  ?     Plateau 
of  Brazil?     Plateau  of  Bolivia? 

Oceans.— Cy  what  continents  does  it  wash  the  shores?   or,  around 
what  pole  is  it  ? 

Model.— Pacific  Ocean  washes  the  western  shores  of  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica ;  Southern  or  Antarctic  Ocean,  around  the  South  Pole. 
Arctic  or  Northern?     Antarctic  or  Southern  ?      Atlantic?     Pacific? 

Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Bays.— fF//a/  coast  does  it  indent  or  wash?     Of 
what  ocean  or  other  body  of  water  is  it  an  arm  ? 

Model.— Hudson  Bay  indents  the  northeastern  coast  of  North  America,  and 
is  an  arm  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Baffin  Bay?    Hudson  Bay?    Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence?    Gulf  of  Mexico  ? 
Caribbean  Sea?     Behring  Sea? 

^\XKi\&.— Between  what  lands  ?      What  waters  does  it  connect? 

Model.— Behring  Strait,  between  Asia  and  North  America,  connects  the  Arctic 
Ocean  with  Behring  Sea. 
Behring?     Davis?     Hudson?     Florida?     Magellan? 

Rivers.—///  what  continent  does  it  rise?     In  what  part  of  it?     In 
what  mountains  ?    In  what  direction  does  it  flow  ?     Into  what  water? 

Model.— Missouri  Ris'er  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  western  part  of 
North  America,  and  flows  southeast  into  the  Mississippi  River. 

Mackenzie?     St.  Lawrence  ?     Mississippi?     Missouri?    Columbia? 
Orinoco?     Amazon?     La  Plata? 

Ocean  Currents.— /«  what  ocean?    In  what  part  of  it?    In  what 

direction  does  it  flow  ? 

Model.— Brazilian  Current,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
flows  towards  the  southwest. 

Polar?    Gulf  Stream?     Equatorial?     Brazilian?    Peruvian?    Japan 
Stream  ? 


V^f.-?' 


eia 


■^  j--^ 


j||l||lllllilllliiilliiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiitiHiiiii<iiiiiiin;iiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiyttiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiimnii»iiiiiriiiiiii.iiiiJniiii 


towTlalne , 

Plateaus 

VeryHigh  Xan-l 

"Volcanoes 

Direction  of  Currents 


[Copyright,  1876,  f>y  tiarpn  Jt  BrotAtri.] 


10 


PHYSICAL  EASTERN  HEMISPHERE:   QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP.— REVIEW  EXERCISES. 


PHYSICAL    EASTERN    HEMISPHERE. 

XII. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

Continents.— What  four  continents  are  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere? 
Which  three  are  united  into  one  great  land -mass?  What  isthmus 
between  Asia  and  Africa?  Which  is  the  largest  of  these  four  conti- 
nents? The  next  in  size?  The  smallest?  What  ocean  bounds  Europe 
and  Asia  on  the  north  ?  What  ocean  east  of  Asia?  What  three  oceans 
border  on  Australia  ?  What  three  continents  border  on  the  Indian 
Ocean  ?     What  ocean  west  of  Europe  and  Africa  ? 

Islands. — What  two  groups  of  islands  are  east  of  Asia?  What  archi- 
pelago southeast  ?  What  four  great  islands  in  the  Malaysian  Archipel- 
ago ?  What  island  north  of  Australia  ?  South  ?  Southeast  of  Africa  ? 
AVhat  group  west  of  Europe  ?  What  island  northwest  ?  What  islands 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean  ?  What  islands  west  of  Africa  ?  Northwest  ? 
What  lands  in  the  Southern  Ocean  ? 

Peninsulas. — What  peninsula  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Asia?  In 
the  eastern  part  ?  Southeastern  ?  Southern  ?  In  the  southern  part 
of  Indo-China?  What  island  south  of  Hindostan  ?  What  peninsula 
in  the  southwestern  part  of  Europe  ?     In  the  northwestern  part  ? 

Capes. — What  cape  at  the  northern  point  of  Europe?  At  the  northern 
point  of  Asia?  At  the  southern  point  of  Malay  Peninsula?  At  the 
southern  point  of  Hindostan?  At  the  eastern  point  of  Africa?  At  the 
southern  point  ?     The  western  point  ?     The  northern  point  ? 

Mountains. — What  mountains  in  the  southern  part  of  Europe  ?  Be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia?  In  the  southern  part  of  Asia?  For  what  are 
the  Himalaya  Mountains  remarkable?  {They  are  the  highest  iti  the 
world.)  How  high  is  the  highest  peak?  {About  f)\  miles.)  What 
mountains  near  the  centre  of  Asia?  In  the  northern  part  of  Africa  ? 
In  the  western  part?  In  the  southeastern  part  of  Australia?  What 
archipelago  contains  many  volcanoes? 

Plains,  Plateaus,  and  Deserts. — What  is  the  chief  plain  in  Europe? 
What  plain  in  the  north  of  Asia?  What  plain  south  of  the  Arctic 
Plain  ?  What  plain  in  Eastern  Asia  ?  In  Southern  Asia  ?  What 
plateau  north  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains  ?  South  of  the  Altai  ?  What 
plateau  in  the  western  part  of  Asia?  What  one  southwest  of  the 
plateau  of  Iran?  What  other  peninsula  of  Asia  contains  a  plateau? 
Which  continent  is  nearly  cov.ered  by  plateaus?  What  desert  in  the 
plateau  of  Mongolia?  In  what  part  of  Africa  is  the  great  desert  of 
Sahara  ?  For  what  is  it  remarkable  ?  {It  is  the  largest  desert  in  the 
7vorld.)     In  what  other  part  of  Africa  is  there  a  desert  ? 

Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Bays. — What  sea  west  of  Kamtchatka  ?  Of  the 
Japan  Islands?  OfCorea?  Of  the  Philippine  Islands?  In  the  Malay- 
sian Archipelago?  West  of  Hindostan  ?  Of  Arabia?  Between  Africa 
and  Europe  ?  East  of  the  British  Islands  ?  Northeast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean ?  East  of  the  North  Sea  ?  What  gulf  west  of  Africa  ?  East 
of  Arabia  ?     What  bay  east  of  Hindostan  ?     West  of  Europe  ? 

Straits. — What  strait  between  Java  and  Sumatra?  Between  Tas- 
mania and  Australia  ?  Between  Australia  and  New  Guinea  ?  At  the 
entrance  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  ?  At  the  entrance  of  the  Red  Sea  ? 
What  channel  between  Madagascar  and  Africa  ? 

Rivers. — What  three  rivers  of  Asia  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  ? 
What  four  rivers  in  Eastern  Asia?  What  river  flows  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  ?  The  Arabian  Sea  ?  What  river  of  Africa  flows  into  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea?  The  Atlantic  Ocean?  The  Mediterranean  Sea?  What 
river  of  Europe  flows  into  the  Caspian  Sea  ?  What  rivers  flow  into  the 
Black  Sea  ? 

Lakes. — What  lakes  in  South  Central  Africa  ?  What  two  lakes  in 
Western  Asia  are  called  seas?     AVhat  lake  in  Australia? 

Ocean  Currents. — What  current  flows  westward  through  the  Indian 
Ocean  ?    What  current  southwest  of  Africa  ?     Northwest  of  Europe  ? 


Zones. — What  circle  crosses  the  northern  part  of  Asia?  What  circle 
crosses  the  desert  of  Sahara  ?  What  continents  does  it  cross  ?  What 
great  circle  crosses  Borneo  ?  What  continent  does  it  cross  ?  What 
circle  crosses  Australia?  AVhat  other  continent  does  it  cross?  What 
circle  bounds  the  South  Frigid  Zone  ?  What  lands  does  it  cross  ?  In 
what  zone  is  Sumatra  ?  Nova  Zembla  ?  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ?  The 
Mediterranean  Sea  ?  In  what  zones  is  Africa  ?  Asia  ?  Europe  ?  Aus- 
tralia ? 


XIII. 

EEVIEW  EXERCISES. 

[For  method  of  recitation,  see  XI.] 

Continents. — Hozu  bounded? 

Europe?     Asia?     Africa?     Australia? 

Islands. — In  what  direction  from  the  nearest  land?  By  what  waters 
surrounded  ? 

Japan  Islands?  Malaysian  Archipelago?  Philippine  Islands?  Java? 
Celebes  ?  Sumatra  ?  Borneo  ?  New  Guinea  ?  Tasmania  ?  Mada- 
gascar ?  Ceylon  ?  British  Islands  ?  Iceland  ?  Spitzbergen  ?  Nova 
Zembla?     Madeira  Islands?     Canary  Islands  ?     St.  Helena? 

Peninsulas.— ./^^(^wz  what  fart  of  the  continent  does  it  project  ?  Into 
what  water.,  or  between  7vhat  waters  t 

Kamtchatka?  Corea?  Indo-China?  Malay?  Scandinavian?  Hin- 
dostan ?     Spanish  ? 

Capes. — From  what  land  does  it  project  ?  From  what  part  of  it  l 
Into  what  body  of  water  i 

North  ?  Northeast  ?  Romania  ?  Comorin  ?  Bon  ?  Good  Hope  ? 
Guardafui  ?     Verde  ? 

Mountains. — In  what  part  of  the  continent  are  they  ?     In  what  direc-  ■ 
tion  do  they  extend? 

Alps?     Ural?     Altai?     Himalaya?     Atlas?     Kong?     Blue? 

Plains,  Plateaus,  and  Deserts. —  Where  situated  ? 

Great  Plain  of  Europe  ?  Arctic  Plain  ?  Siberian  Plain  ?  Plain  of 
China?  Plain  of  the  Ganges?  Plateau  of  Mongolia?  Plateau  of 
Thibet?  Plateau  of  Iran?  Plateau  of  Arabia?  Desert  of  Gobi? 
Arabian  Desert  ?     Sahara  Desert  ? 

Oceans. —  Of  what  continents  does  it  wash  the  shores?  or,  around  what 
pole  is  it  ? 
.Arctic?     Pacific?     Antarctic?     Atlantic?     Indian? 

Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Bays.  —  What  coasts  does  it  indent  or  wash  ?  Of 
what  ocean  or  other  body  of  laater  is  it  an  arm  ? 

Okhotsk?  Japan?  Yellow?  China?  Java?  Bengal?  Arabian? 
Red?  Persian?  Guinea?  Mediterranean?  Black?  Biscay?  North? 
Baltic? 

Straits. — Between  what  lands  ?     What  waters  does  it  connect  ? 
Sunda?     Bass?     Torres?     Gibraltar?     BabelMandeb?     Mozam- 
bique ? 

Rivers.  —  In  what  continent  docs  it  rise?  In  what  part  of  it? 
In  what  mountains  ?  In  what  direction  does  it  flow  ?  Into  what 
water  ? 

Obi?  Yenisei?  Lena?  Amoor  ?  HoangHo?  Yang  tse  Kiang? 
Ganges?  Cambodia?  Indus?  Niger?  Nile?  Congo?  Volga? 
Danube?     Dnieper? 

Lakes. —  Where  situated  ?     What  outlet  has  it  ? 

Albert  Nyanza  ?   Victoria  Nyanza  ?    Caspian  Sea  ?    Aral  Sea  ?    Eyre  ? 

Ocean  Currents.— /«  what  ocean  ?     In  what  part  of  it  ?    In  ivhat 

direction  docs  it  flozv  ? 

Equatorial  Current?     South  Atlantic  Current  ?     Gulf  Stream? 


<r^    ? 


EASTIGRN^   llEMISPHERE. 


f^ 


'--^'  "~ 


^;j/Oa 


Xow  Plains 

Plateaus 

"Very  Higlx  Land 

"Volcanoes 

Direction  of  Currents 


12 


COMPARATIVE  PHYSICAL  "GEOGRAPHY :   CONTINENTS"  AND   ISLANDS. 


COMPARATIVE  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

XIV. 

THE  CONTINENTS. 


MAP  OF  THE  WORLD. 


7~^ — ae"o  i  °?j- 


c:EAjr 


RC  TIC   hCBAN 


± 


J-^ 


1.  The  Old  "World  has  more  than  twice  as  much 
surface  as  the  New  World.  Its  Hne  of  direction,  or  line 
of  greatest  length,  is  from  northeast  to  southwest.  The 
New^  World  extends  from  northwest  to  southeast. 

2.  Each  of  these  great  land-masses  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  larger  being  to  the  north.  Africa  is  joined  to  Asia 
by  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  South  America  to 
North  America  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

These  two  isthmuses  are  of  great  commercial  importance,  because 
the  principal  routes  connecting  the  commerce  of  the  great  oceans 
pass  across  them. 

3.  The  southern  continents,  South  America  and  Africa, 
are  much  alike  in  shape  and  direction. 

Their  similarity  is  somewhat  like  that  of  the  two  hands. 

4.  Each  continent  widens  toward  the  north  and  narrows 
to  a  point  at  the  south. 

5.  Nearly  all  the  great  peninsulas  point  in  a  southerly 

direction. 

They  project  from  the  three  northern  continents.  The  principal 
shore-lines  of  the  continents,  nearly  all  of  the  great  mountain 
ranges,  and  most  of  the  great  chains  of  islands  lie  in  a  south- 
easterly or  southwesterly  direction. 

6.  The  three  northern  continents.  North  America,  Eu- 
rope, and  Asia,  are  irregular  in  form.  The  three  southern 
continents  are  South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia ;  the 
first  two  are  peninsular  in  form. 

7.  The  coasts  of  the  northern  continents,  and  particu- 
larly those  of  Europe,  are  much  broken  by  inland  seas. 
Those  of  the  southern  continents  are  nearly  unbroken 
by  peninsulas  or  by  arms  of  the  ocean. 

Each  northern  continent  has  three  great  peninsulas  projecting 
from  its  southern  border.  These  peninsulas  are  curiously  alike 
in  some  particulars  :  Indo-China,  Greece,  and  Florida,  at  the 
southeast,  have   each   a  large   archipelago   southeast  of  them  ; 


Arabia,  Spain,  and  California,  at  the  southwest,  are  very  simple 
in  form,  and  have  no  such  islands ;  Hindostan,  Italy,  and  the 
long  isthmus  of  Central  America  correspond  in  position. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  Which  has  the  greater  surface,  the  Old  World  or  the  New 
World  ?  How  many  times  as  much  ?  What  is  the  line  of  direction  of  the  Old  World  ? 
Of  the  New  World  ? — 2.  Of  what  does  each  of  these  land-masses  consist  ?  Which  part 
is  the  larger?  How  is  Africa  joined  to  Asia?  North  America  to  South  America? — 
3.  In  what  are  South  America  and  Africa  alike  ? — i.  In  what  direction  does  each  con- 
tinent widen?  In  what  direction  does  it  narrow? — 5.  In  what  direction  do  nearly  all 
the  great  peninsulas  point? — 6.  Name  the  three  northern  continents.  What  is  their 
form?  Name  the  three  southern  continents.  What  is  their  form? — 7.  How  do  the 
coasts  of  the  northern  continents  differ  from  those  of  the  southern  continents  ? 

(II.) — 2.  Why  are  the  two  isthmuses  of  great  commercial  importance  ? — 3.  To  what 
may  the  similarity  of  South  America  and  Africa  be  compared? — 5.  Which  continents 
have  nearly  all  the  great  peninsulas  ?  In  what  two  directions  do  the  principal  shore- 
lines, mountain  ranges,  and  island  chains  lie  i' — 7.  What  points  of  resemblance  have 
the  three  northern  continents  ? 


XV. 

ISLANDS. 

1.  Nearly  all  the  islands  lie  in  curved  chains  or  in 
groups.  Some  are  the  tops  of  hills  or  mountain  ranges 
whose  lower  parts  are  under  the  sea. 

2.  Islands  are  of  two  kinds — continental  and  oceanic. 

3.  Continental  islands  are  those  lying  near  the  con- 
tinents of  which  they  appear  to  have  been  once  a  part. 

The  principal  chains  of  continental  islands  lie  east  and 
southeast  of  Asia  and  North  America. 

4.  Oceanic  islands  are  those  lying  far  out  in  the 
ocean. 

The  principal  chains  of  oceanic  islands  are  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

The  Azores  and  Bermudas  are  oceanic  groups.     St.  Helena  and 
Ascension  are  solitary  oceanic  islands. 


\uLk:ANIC  ISLAND. 


Volcanic  islands  are  those  which  have  been  raised  by  volcanic 
forces  from  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  They  have  bold  shores 
and  lofty  pe.iks,  and  may  be  either  continental  or  oceanic.    Most 


MOUNTAINS.— PLATEAUS   OR  TABLE-LANDS. 


13 


of  the  coast  islands  of  Asia,  the  Galapagos  and  Sandwich  groups 
of  the  Pacific,  and  Iceland,  the  Azores,  Cape  Verde,  St.  Helena, 
and  Ascension  of  the  Atlantic,  are  volcanic  islands. 
Coral  islands  are  those  composed  of  coral,  a  limy  substance  formed 
from  sea-water  by  certain  small  animals,  and  are  found  only  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  ocean.  They  are  usually  small  and  low. 
The  Bahamas  and  Bermudas  in  the  Atlantic  and  many  oceanic 
chains  in  the  Pacific  are  coral  islands. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  How  are  most  islands  arranged?  What  are  some  of  them  ? 
— 2.  How  many  kinds  of  islands?  What  are  they? — 3.  What  are  continental  islands? 
Where  are  the  principal  chains  of  continental  islands? — 4.  What  are  oceanic  islands? 
Where  are  the  principal  chains  ? 

(II.) — i.  Name  some  oceanic  islands.  What  are  volcanic  islands?  What  kind  of 
shores  and  surfaces  have  they  ?  To  which  class  do  they  belong  ?  Name  some  volcanic 
islands  of  the  Pacific.  Of  the  Atlantic.  What  are  coral  islands?  Where  found?  Of 
what  size  ?    Name  some  coral  islands. 


XVI. 

MOUNTAINS. 


1.  A  monntain  system  is  a  number  of  nearly  parallel 
ranges  covering  a  wide  belt  of  country. 

2.  The  New  World  has  the  longest  mountain  system ; 
its  length  is  about  ten  thousand  miles. 

It  has  two  principal  divisions — the  Andes  chains  in  South  Amer- 
ica, and  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  parallel  chains  in  North 
America.  Its  highest  point  is  in  South  America,  and  is  about 
25,000  feet,  or  4f  miles,  above  the  sea. 

3.  The  chief  system  of  the  Old  World  begins  on  the 
Atlantic  shores,  and  extends  in  an  irregular  line  to  the 
Pacific.  It  is  about  eight  thousand  miles  long,  and  is 
composed  of  many  smaller  systems. 

Among  them  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  which  are  the  highest 
in  the  world,  the  Caucasus,  and  the  Alps.  The  highest  point  of 
the  Himalaya  Mountains  is  about  29,000  feet,  or  5^  miles,  above 
the  sea-level. 

These  two  great  systems  are  not  far  from  the  shores  of  the  conti- 
nents in  which  they  lie.  The  principal  systems  of  Africa  and 
Australia  lie  near  their  eastern  coasts. 

The  tops  of  many  of  the  great  mountain  chains  are  always  covered 
with  snow,  even  in  the  Torrid  Zone. 

4.  Volcanoes  are  found  chiefly  in  mountainous  islands, 
or  in  mountain  ranges  which  are  near  the  sea.  The  great 
lowland  plains  have  no  volcanoes. 

The  volcanoes  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  are  mostly  found  in  its 
great  mountain  systems  ;  those  of  the  Eastern,  in  the  island 
chains  bordering  the  coasts  of  Asia.  Many  of  the  oceanic  islands 
in  the  Pacific  contain  volcanoes.  Most  of  the  volcanoes  of  the 
world  are  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  or  near  its  borders. 

5.  Mountains  are  of  great  importance :  they  condense 
a  large  part  of  the  moisture  that  falls  from  the  atmosphere 
as  rain  or  snow;  they  contain  the  sources  of  nearly  all 


the  great  rivers  of  the  globe ;  their  cold  summits  temper 
the  fierce  heat  of  the  Torrid  Zone ;  in  them  are  found 
most  of  the  metals  and  other  minerals  so  important  to  the 
well-being  of  man. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  a  mountain  system  ?— 2.  Where  is  the  longest  system? 
How  long  is  it? — 3.  Describe  the  chief  system  of  the  Old  World.  How  long  is  it? 
Of  what  is  it  composed? — 4.  Where  are  volcanoes  chiefly  found?  Where  are  none 
found  f — 5.  State  some  of  the  uses  of  mountains. 

(11.) — 3.  How  many  divisions  has  the  great  mountain  system  of  America?  What 
chains  in  each  ?  Where  is  its  highest  point  ?  How  high  is  it  ? — 3.  Which  are  the 
highest  mountains  in  the  Old  World  ?  How  high  is  their  highest  peak  ?  What  other 
mountains  in  the  same  system?  Where  are  the  two  great  systems?  Where  is  the 
principal  system  of  Africa  ?  Of  Australia?  With  what  are  the  tops  of  many  of  the 
great  mountain  chains  covered  ? — 4.  Where  are  most  of  the  volcanoes  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere  found  ?  Of  the  Eastern  ?  What  oceanic  islands  contain  volcanoes  ? 
Where  are  most  of  the  volcanoes  of  the  world  found  ? 


XVII. 

PLATEAUS  OE  TABLE -LANDS. 

1.  The  great  plateaas  of  each  continent  are  in 

the  same  regions  and  lie  in  the  same  direction  as  the 

chief  mountain  systems. 

These  mountains  either  stand  upon  the  plateaus  or  form  their 
border  walls. 

2.  The  chief  plateau  belt  of  IVorth  America  ex- 
tends from  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean. 

Its  highest  part,  the  plateau  of  Mexico,  is  from  4000  to  8000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Rocky  Mountains  divide  these 
plateaus  mto  two  sections :  the  eastern  section  is  known  as  the 
Great  Plains  ;  the  western  section  is  covered  with  numerous 
parallel  chains  of  mountains. 

3.  The  chief  plateau  belt  of  South  America  ex- 
tends in  a  band  parallel  with  the  western  coast. 

Its  highest  and  widest  part,  the  plateau  of  Bolivia,  is  more  than 
12,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  edges  are  formed  by  two  great 
chains  of  the  Andes.  In  the  eastern  part  of  South  America 
there  are  low  and  broad  plateaus. 

4.  The  plateaus  of  Asia  are  the  highest  and  most 

extensive  in  the  world. 

The  plateau  of  Thibet  is  the  highest ;  it  reaches  an  elevation  of 
16,000  feet.     It  is  bordered  on  the  south  by  the  Himalayas. 

5.  The  plateaus  of  Africa  cover  nearly  the  whole 
of  that  continent. 

The  highest  is  east  of  the  Nile  River,  and  is  from  GOOO  to  TOOO 
feet  in  elevation.  Africa  is  bordered  on  nearly  every  side  by 
mountains.  I'he  Atlas,  Kong,  and  the  ranges  near  the  eastern 
coast  are  the  principal  chains. 

6.  The  plateaus  of  Australia  are  comparatively  low. 

This  continent  resembles  Africa  in  its  almost  unbroken  coasts  and 
mountain  borders. 


14 


LOWLAND    PLAINS.— THE   OCEANS.— DRAINAGE  WATERS. 


7.  Europe  has  no  large  plateaus. 

8.  Nearly  all  deserts  are  plateaus. 


Questions  (I.) — 1.  Where  are  the  great  plateaus  of  each  continent  found  ?  In 
what  direction  do  they  lie  ? — 2.  Where  is  the  chief  plateau  belt  of  North  America  ? — 

3.  Of  South  America? — 4.  What  is  said  of  the  plateaus  of  Asia.'— 5.  What  is  said 
of  the  plateaus  of  Africa .' — 6.  Of  the  plateaus  of  Australia  ? — 7.  Of  Europe  ? — 8.  What 
is  said  of  deserts .' 

(II.) — 1.  What  relation  have  the  mountains  to  the  plateaus  with  which  they  are 
connected  ? — 3.  What  name  is  given  to  the  highest  plateau  of  North  America  ?  How 
high  is  it .''  How  do  the  Rocky  Mountains  divide  these  plateaus  ?  What  name  is 
given  to  the  eastern  section  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  western  section  ? — 3.  What 
name  is  given  to  the  highest  plateau  of  South  America.'  How  high  is  it?  What 
mountains  border  the  high  plateaus  of  that  continent  ?    Where  are  its  low  plateaus  ? — 

4.  What  name  is  given  to  the  highest  plateau  of  Asia?  How  high  is  it?  What 
mountains  border  it? — 5.  Where  is  the  highest  plateau  of  Africa?  How  high  is  it? 
How  is  that  continent  bordered  ?  Name  the  principal  chains. — 0.  In  what  respects 
does  Australia  resemble  Africa  ? 


XVIII. 

LOWLAND  PLAINS. 

1.  The  great  lowland  plains  of  the  Ameriean 
continents  lie  between  the  high  plateaus  and  the  coasts 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  from  which  they  are  partly  sepa- 
rated by  low  plateaus  and  mountains. 

The  great  lowland  plains  of  Europe  and  Asia 

lie  between  the  high  plateaus  and  the  shores  of  the  Arctic 

Ocean. 

These  plains  are  the  most  extensive  in  the  world.  Their  greatest 
length  is  in  the  same  direction  as  the  principal  mountain  systems 
and  the  belts  of  plateaus.  Smaller  but  important  plains  are 
found  in  other  parts  of  these  four  continents. 

2.  The   lowland   plains   of  Australia  lie  in  the 

central  and  southern  portions  of  that  continent. 

a 

The  greater  part  of  these  plains  is  yet  unexplored. 

Africa  has  no  large  and  important  lowland  plain. 

3.  The  most  fertile  soil  and  the  largest  navigable  rivers 
are  found  in  the  low  plains  of  the  Torrid  and  Temperate 
Zones. 

The  greater  part  of  the  population  of  the  world,  and  the  chief 
seats  of  civilization,  are  found  in  these  plains.  The  most  densely 
populated  are  the  plains  of  China,  of  the  Ganges,  and  the  western 
part  of  the  great  plain  of  Europe. 

More  than  one  third  of  the  population  of  North  America  inhabit 
its  central  plain. 

4.  The  plains  which  border  the  Arctic  Ocean  are  among 
the  coldest  regions  of  the  globe. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  Where  are  the  great  lowland  plains  of  the  American  conti- 
nents ?  By  what  are  they  partly  separated  from  the  Atlantic  ?  Where  are  the  great 
low  plains  of  Europe  and  Asia? — 2.  Of  Australia?  Of  Africa? — 3.  What  is  said  of  the 
plains  of  the  Torrid  and  Temperate  Zones  ? — 4.  Of  those  bordering  the  Arctic  Ocean  ? 

(H.) — 1.  Which  are  the  most  extensive  plains  in  the  woild  ?  In  what  direction  is 
their  greatest  length  ?  Are  there  any  other  important  plains  in  these  four  continents? 
— 2.  What  can  you  say  of  the  lowland  plains  of  Australia? — 3.  What  are  found  in  the 
plains  of  the  Torrid  and  Temperate  Zones  ?  Name  the  most  densely  populated. 
How  much  of  the  population  of  North  America  inhabits  its  central  plain  ? 


XIX. 

THE  OCEANS. 

1.  The  Pacific  Ocean  is  about  as  large  as  all  the 
other  oceans  taken  together. 

It  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  its  islands  and  border  seas ; 
these  seas  are  enclosed  or  partly  enclosed  by  curved  lines  of 
islands. 

2.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  is  about  half  as  large  as  the 

Pacific. 

It  is  remarkable  for  the  many  inland  seas  that  branch  from  it, 
and  for  the  number  of  great  rivers  that  flow  into  it.  Its  north- 
ern half  is  the  chief  theatre  of  the  ocean  commerce  of  the  world. 

3.  The  Indian  Ocean  is  much  smaller  than  the  At- 
lantic. 

It  is  remarkable  for  the  fewness  of  its  seas  and  islands,  and  for  the 
violence  and  frequency  of  its  hurricanes. 

4.  The  Arctic  Ocean  is  much  the  smallest  qf  the 
oceans. 

It  is  a  part  of  the  Atlantic  rather  than  a  separate  ocean. 

All  the  great  plains  border  on  the  Atlantic  and  Arctic  Oceans. 

5.  The  Antarctic  or  Southern  Ocean  is  not  prop- 
erly a  separate  ocean,  but  a  combination  of  the  southern 
parts  of  the  three  great  oceans. 

It  is  remarkable  for  the  intensity  of  its  cold,  and  for  the  number 

and  size  of  its  icebergs. 
The  greater  part  of  the  polar  oceans,  and  especially  the  Antarctic, 

has  never  been  explored. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  said  of  the  size  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? — 3.  Of  the 
Atlantic .' — 3.  Of  the  Indian  ? — 4.  Which  is  the  smallest  ocean .' — 5.  Is  the  Antarctic 
Ocean  a  separate  ocean  ?    What  is  it  ? 

(11.) — 1.  For  what  is  the  Pacific  Ocean  remarkable?  By  what  are  the  border  seas 
enclosed  ?  Name  four  of  the  border  seas  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  (See  maps  of  hemi- 
spheres.)— 3.  For  what  is  the  Atlantic  Ocean  remarkable?  What  is  said  of  its  com- 
mercial importance  ?  Name  four  inland  seas  of  this  ocean.  Name  two  great  rivers 
flowing  into  it  from  North  America.  Three  from  South  America.  One  from  Africa. 
— 3.  For  what  is  the  Indian  Ocean  remarkable  ?  Name  the  two  great  bays  of  that 
ocean. — 4.  Of  what  ocean  is  the  Arctic  a  part  ?  Name  the  three  continents  surround- 
ing it.  What  lands  border  on  these  two  oceans  ?— 5.  For  what  is  the  Antarctic  Ocean 
remarkable?    Have  the  polar  oceans  been  explored  ?    Why? 


XX. 

DRAINAGE  WATEES.-EIVEES. 

1.  The  ocean  is  the  source  of  all  the  waters  upon 

the  surface  of  the  land. 

The  winds  and  the  heat  of  the  sun  are  constantly  carrying  away 
invisible  vapor  from  the  surface  of  the  ocean  ;  this  forms  clouds, 
and  falls  upon  the  land  as  rain  or  snow.  This  water  leaves  the 
land  surface  in  three  ways  :  first,  the  greater  part  is  evaporated  ; 
second,  a  part  flows  directly  away,  forming  lakes,  rivers,  and 
smaller  streams  ;  third,  a  part  sinks  into  the  soil,  and  issues 
again  at  a  lower  level  as  springs. 


RIVERS.— LAKES.— GLACIERS   AND    ICEBERGS. 


15 


2.  Many  large  rivers  have  their  sources  in  the  snow- 
covered  mountains  of  the  table-lands. 

Most  rivers  begin  at  springs,  and  are  enlarged  by  rains  and  melted 
snows,  and  by  other  rivers. 

3.  A  river  system  is  a  river  with  its  branches. 

A  basin  or  valley  is  the  whole  country  drained  by  a 
river  system. 

A  water-shed  is  the  line  of  highest  land  that  divides 
two  basins. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  sometimes  called  a  divide. 

An   estuary  is  a  broad  mouth  of  a  river.     When   a  river  efhters 

the  sea  by  two  or  more  mouths,  the  land  between  the  mouths 

is  called  a  delta. 
A  canon  is  a  deep  and  narrow  gorge  through  which  a  river  runs. 
Rapids  are  those  parts  of  a  river  in  which  the  current  is  very  swift. 

P'alls  are  those  parts  of  a  river  in  which  the  water  flows  over  a 

precipice.     Falls  of  small  streams  are  called  cascades ;  of  large 

rivers,  cataracts. 

4.  The  rivers  in  the  low  plains  are  the  chief  natural 
channels  of  commerce,  especially  since  the  invention  of 
the  steamboat,  by  means  of  which  their  swift  currents  may 
be  ascended.  Commerce  is  less  expensive  by  water  than 
by  land. 

In  the  hill  countries,  rivers  whose  falls  or  rapids  in- 
terrupt navigation  furnish  valuable  water-power  for  man- 
ufacturing purposes. 

Some  rivers  overflow  their  banks  at  certain  seasons, 
and  by  a  rich  deposit  of  mud  fertilize  the  low  lands 
through  which  they  run. 

Where  rivers  run  through  lands  which  are  very  dry 
during  the  summer,  their  water  is  sometimes  used  to  ir- 
rigate the  soil. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  source  of  all  the  waters  which  are  on  the  surface 
of  the  land .'' — 2.  Where  do  many  large  rivers  have  their  sources .' — 3.  What  is  a  river 
system  ?  What  is  a  basin  or  valley.'  What  is  a  water-shed.' — i.  State  some  of  the 
uses  of  rivers. 

(II.) — 1.  How  is  water  constantly  taken  from  the  surface  of  the  ocean  ?  In  what 
form  does  it  fall  again .'  In  how  many  and  what  ways  does  it  leave  the  land  surface 
again  ? — 3.  At  what  do  most  rivers  begin  ?  How  are  they  enlarged  ? — 3.  What  is  a 
divide?  An  estuary?  A  delta?  A  cafion  ?  What  are  rapids  ?  Falls?  Cascades? 
Cataracts  ? 


XXI. 

LAKES -GLAOIEES  AND  lOEBEEGS. 

1.  Lakes  are  of  two  kinds — salt  and  fresh. 

2.  A  salt  lake  is  one  that  has  no  outlet. 

Small  quantities  of  salt  are  washed  out  of  the  soil  by  the  rains  ;  if 
carried  to  a  lake  having  no  outlet,  the  salt  is  left  in  the  lake  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  water. 

3.  The  plains  and  plateaus  of  Asia  have  the  largest  salt 
lakes  in  the  world. 

The  largest  of  these  are  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas. 


4.  The  plains  of  North  America  and  the  plateaus  of 
Southern  Africa  have  the  largest  fresh-water  lakes  in  the 
world. 

Their  principal  outlets  are  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Nile  Rivers.  Titi- 
caca,  on  the  plateau  of  Bolivia  in  South  America,  is  the  most 
elevated  of  the  large  fresh-water  lakes:  it  is  13,000  feet  above 
the  ocean-level. 

5.  Glaciers  are  vast  river-like  fields  of  ice.     They  are 

formed  from  snow,  which  is  solidified  by  the  pressure  of 

its  own  weight,  and  by  melting  and  freezing. 

They  are  formed  in  the  high  mountain  valleys  in  the  regions  of  per- 
petual snow.  They  move  very  slowly  down  the  valleys — only 
a  few  rods  in  a  year.  In  the  Temperate  Zones  they  are  found 
in  the  highest  part  of  the  highest  mountains,  as  in  the  Alps  and 
the  Himalayas.  In  the  Frigid  Zones  their  lower  edges  project 
into  the  sea;  the  tides  and  waves  here  wash  away  their  bases, 
and  the  overhanguig  portions  at  last  break  off  by  their  own 
weight  and  fall  into  the  sea  •  they  are  then  called  icebergs. 


THE   ORIGIN    OF  AN    ICEBERG. 

6.  An  iceberg  is  a  large  floating  fragment  of  an  arctic 
or  antarctic  glacier. 

The  great  glaciers  of  Greenland  are  famous  for  the  numerous  ice- 
bergs which  they  send  off;  many  have  been  seen  projecting  more 
than  300  feet  above  the  sea,  seven  eighths  of  their  mass  being 
under  water.  Icebergs  are  largest  and  most  numerous  in  the 
Antarctic  Ocean  ;  they  are  formed  in  the  unknown  lands  around 
the  South  Pole. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  How  many  kinds  of  lakes?  What  are  they? — 2.  What  is  a 
salt  lake?  —  3.  Where  are  the  largest  salt  lakes  in  the  world?  —  4.  Where  are  the 
largest  fresh  -  water  lakes  in  the  world?  —  5.  What  are  glaciers?  How  are  they 
formed.' — G.  What  is  an  iceberg? 

(II.) — 2.  How  is  a  salt  lake  formed  ? — 3.  Name  the  two  largest  salt  lakes. — 4.  What 
are  the  outlets  of  the  largest  fresh-water  lakes?  Which  is  the  most  elevated  of  the 
large  fresh-water  lakes  ?  Where  is  it  ?  How  high  .' — 5.  Where  are  glaciers  formed  ? 
Describe  the  origin  of  an  iceberg. — 6.  What  can  you  say  of  the  glaciers  and  icebergs 
of  Greenland  ?     Of  the  Antarctic  Ocean  ?     Where  are  thev  formed  ? 


16 


OCEAN   CURRENTS.— WINDS. 


XXII. 

OCEAN  OUKEENTS. 

1.  An  ocean  current  is   a  broad  stream   of  water 
flowing  through  the  ocean. 

The  great  ocean  currents  are  so  connected  with  each  other  as  to 
form  a  circulatory  system  ;  some  of  them  are  of  great  depth. 

2.  Constant  currents  are  those  that  always  flow  in 
the  same  direction. 

Some  of  them  have  been  traced  many  thousands  of  miles.  All  the 
rivers  in  the  world  are  insignificant  when  compared  with  some 
of  these  currents.  The  chief  cause  of  ocean  currents  is  the  dif- 
ference of  temperature  of  the  ocean  waters  in  the  Torrid  and 
Frigid  Zones :  the  warmer  and  lighter  water  flows  towards  the 
poles,  an  equal  quantity  of  the  cold  and  heavier  water  flowing  at 
the  same  time  towards  the  Equator.  The  ocean  currents  thus 
assist  to  cool  the  tropical  and  to  warm  the  polar  regions. 

The  direction  and  velocity  of  currents  are  modified,  first,  by  the 
revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis;  second,  by  the  constant 
winds  of  the  Torrid  Zone ;  third,  by  being  turned  aside  by  the 
shores. 

3.  The  Equatorial  Currents  are  the  widest  and  long- 
est of  the  constant  currents. 

They  are  found  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  and  move  from 
east  to  west. 

4.  The  best  known  and  most  important  current  is  the 
Ciuir  stream. 

It  begins  in  a  branch  of  the  equatorial  current  of  the  Atlantic, 
sweeps  around  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  again  enters  the  Atlantic 
as  a  swift  and  deep  stream  through  the  Straits  of  Florida.  It 
then  crosses  the  Atlantic  in  a  northeasterly  course,  and,  with 
the  winds  which  sweep  over  its  warm  waters,  gives  a  mild 
climate  to  Western  Europe. 

5.  The  Japan  Stream  is  a  current  similar  to  the 
Gulf  Stream,  and  passes  from  Japan  tow^ards  Alaska  and 
California. 

6.  The  Polar  Currents  are  the.  cold  currents  passing 
from  the  polar  regions  towards  the  Equator. 

They  bring  vast  quantities  of  ice  from  the  polar  regions.  But  little 
is  known  of  the  cold  currents  which  flow  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean.  The  ocean  water  at  great  depths  in  the  Torrid  Zone  is 
nearly  as  cold  as  that  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  two  broad  oval  spaces  between  the  Equatorial  Currents  on 
the  south  and  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the  Japan  Stream  on  the 
north  are  called  Sargasso  or  Grassy  seas,  because  covered  with 
floating  sea-weeds. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  an  ocean  airrent  ? — 3.  What  are  constant  currents  ? — 
3.  Wliich  are  the  greatest  of  the  constant  currents  ? — i.  Which  is  the  best  known  cur- 
rent .> — .5.  Describe  the  Japan  Stream — 6.  Describe  the  Polar  Currents. 

(II.) — 1.  How  are  the  ocean  currents  connected  ?  What  is  said  of  their  depth  ? — 
2.  How  far  have  some  been  traced  ?  How  do  they  compare  with  rivers  .>  What  is 
their  chief  cause?  Of  what  use  are  they.'  How  are  their  direction  and  velocity 
modified  ? — 3.  Where  are  the  Equatorial  Currents  found  ?  What  is  their  general 
direction  ?^.  Describe  the  origin  and  course  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  How  does  it  affect 
the  climate  of  Western  Europe  ? — 6.  What  do  the  Polar  Currents  bring  from  the  polar 
regions  ?  What  is  said  of  the  deep  cold  currents  ?  Of  the  deep  water  in  the  Torrid 
Zone  ?     Where  are  the  Sargasso  or  Grassy  seas  ?     Why  so  called  ? 


XXIII. 

WINDS. 

1.  The  atmosphere  covers  the  earth  to  a  height  of 
about  fifty  miles. 

The  upper  portions  of  the  atmosphere  press  upon  the  lower,  and 
make  them  denser.  Nearly  all  the  moisture  and  all  animal  and 
vegetable  life  are  found  within  three  and  a  half  miles  of  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Above  this  the  thinness  and  dryness  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  intense  cold,  render  plant  life,  and  conse- 
quently animal  life,  impossible. 

The  mountains  of  Thibet  have  been  ascended  above  four  miles. 
A  balloon  has  reached  an  elevation  of  five  and  three-quarter 
miles.  These  are  the  greatest  heights  ever  reached  by  man. 
In  both  cases  the  suffering  was  very  great. 

2.  Heat  causes  air,  first,  to  expand  and  become  lighter ; 
and,  second,  to  absorb  and  render  invisible  large  quanti- 
ties of  water.     Cold  produces  opposite  effects. 

3.  The  heat  of  the  sun  produces  ascending  currents 
of  hot  air,  particularly  in  the  Torrid  Zone ;  other  air  flows 
in  below  to  fill  the  space. 

4.  Iirinds  are  currents  of  air. 

The  currents  from  the  polar  regions  tend  at  first  directly  towards 
the  Equator  ;  as  they  pass  towards  and  into  the  Torrid  Zone,  the 
revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  causes  them  to  turn  more 
and  more  towards  the  west :  these  currents  are  then  called  the 
Trade  Winds. 

5.  The  Trade  W^inds  are  constant  winds  between  the 
parallels  of  30°  north  and  south  latitude,  and  always  blow 
from  an  easterly  direction.  They  carry  immense  quanti- 
ties of  vapor  from  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  oceans. 

The  masses  of  heated  air  rise  some  miles  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  flow  over  in  two  sets  of  currents,  one  towards  each 
pole,  to  fill  the  places  left  vacant  by  the  Polar  Currents ;  they 
gradually  cool  and  settle  towards  the  surface,  striking  it  beyond 
the  parallels  of  30°:  they  are  then  known  as  the  Return  Trade 
Winds,  or  Counter  Trade  Winds. 

6.  The  Counter  Trade  'Winds  are  the  prevalent 

winds  beyond  the  thirtieth  parallels.     In  the  Northern 

Hemisphere  they  blow  from  the  southwest,  and  in  the 

Southern  from  the  northwest. 

The  Trade  Winds  and  Counter  Trade  Winds  are  similar  to  the 
ocean  currents  both  in  cause  and  general  direction. 

Questions  (I.)— 1.  To  whet  height  does  the  atmosphere  extend?— 3.  What  are 
the  effects  of  heat  upon  air  ?  Of  cold  .'—3.  What  are  the  effects  of  the  sun's  heat  ? 
In  what  zone  is  this  effect  most  marked?  What  other  effect  follows? — i.  What  arc 
winds  ?— .5.  What  and  where  are  the  Trade  Winds  ?  What  is  their  direction  ?  What 
do  they  carry? — 6.  What  and  where  are  the  Counter  Trade  Winds?  In  wh.it  direc- 
tion do  they  blow  ? 

(II.) — 1.  How  do  the  upper  portions  of  the  atmosphere  affect  the  lower  ?  What  are 
found  only  within  three  and  a  half  miles  of  the  level  of  the  sea?  Why  is  there  no 
life  above  this  height?  What  are  the  greatest  heights  ever  reached  by  man?  What 
was  the  effect  ? — 4.  In  what  direction  do  the  Polar  Currents  at  first  flow  ?  In  what 
direction  afterwards  ?  What  causes  this  change  ?  Wh.-it  are  they  then  called  ? — 5.  De- 
scribe the  course  of  the  ascending  currents  of  the  Trade  Winds.  Where  do  they  again 
strike  the  surface  of  the  earth  ?  What  are  they  then  called  .'— C.  In  what  respects  are 
the  Trade  Winds  similar  to  the  ocean  currents  ? 


CLIMATE  :  WINDS,  OCEAN   CURRENTS,  AND   RAIN-FALL. 


17 


XXIV. 

CLIMATE. 

1.  The  climate  of  a  country  is  the  general  condition 
of  its  atmosphere  in  regard  to  heat  and  moisture. 

2.  CHmate  depends  upon  distance  from  the  Equator, 
elevation  above  the  sea  level,  the  prevailing  winds  and 
ocean  currents,  and  distance  from  the  sea. 

3.  The  Frigid  Zones  have  an  intensely  cold  climate. 

4.  The  low  plains  in  and  near  the  Torrid  Zone  are 
very  hot.  If  they  are  open  to  the  ocean  winds,  their 
climate  is  moist ;  if  not,  it  is  dry. 

5.  The  high  plateaus  within  and  near  the  tropics 
have  a  mild,  spring-like  climate. 

6.  The  high  mountains  in  the  same  regions  have  their 

tops  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

The  lower  limit  of  perpetual  snow  is  called  the  snow-line ;  it  is 
of  less  and  less  elevation  towards  the  poles. 

7.  Winds  and  ocean  currents  mod- 
ify climate.  The  winds  have  by  far 
the  more  marked  effect. 

When   a  warm  ocean  jinnd  strikes  the 

sides    of  a    high   mountain    chain,  it 

passes   up  the   slope,  growing  colder 

and  gradually  losing   its  moisture  in 

rain  or  snow  as  it  ascends,  and  at  last 

passes  over  the  range  and  down  the 

opposite  slope  as  a  cold  and  dry  wind. 
The    warm     and    moist    Return    Trade 

Winds    of   the    Atlantic    blow    upon 

Western  Europe,  and  the  warm  waters 

of  the  Gulf  Stream  reach  its  shores  ; 

in  the    same    latitude,  the    shores   of 

Greenland  and  Labrador  are  washed 

by  the   icy  waters   of  the   arctic   cur- 
rents and  swept  by  the  polar  winds. 

The  one  region  has  a  mild   climate, 

and  is  occupied  by  the  most  enlight- 
ened nations  of  the  world  ;  the  others 

are  frozen  wastes,  sparsely  inhabited 

by  degraded  savages  and  a  few  Eu- 
ropean traders. 

8.  The  rain-fall  of  a  country  is  the  quantity  of  water 
that  falls  upon  it  as  rain  or  snow. 

In  the  Torrid  Zone  the  average  annual  fall  is  about  100  inches, 
but  in  some  places  in  that  zone  it  is  four  or  five  times  as 
much.  In  the  Temperate  Zones  it  is  from  35  to  40  inches,  or 
little  more  than  one  third  as  much  as  in  the  Torrid  Zone.  In 
the  Frigid  Zones  it  is  much  less. 

The  rain -fall  usually  diminishes  as  the  distance  from  the  sea 
increases. 

9.  The  tropical  rain-belt  is  a  broad  movable  belt 

of  rain  extending  around  the  world.     It  is  about  1000 

miles  wide  from  north  to  south. 
7 


The  sun  is  vertical  to  a  place  when  it  is  directly  over  that  place. 
This  can  happen  only  in  the  Torrid  Zone. 

As  the  sun  passes  from  one  tropic  to  the  other,  the  parts  of  the 
zone  over  which  it  is  vertical  have  their  greatest  heat,  and  conse- 
quently their  greatest  evaporation.  In  those  regions  which  are 
open  to  the  Trade  Winds,  a  heavy  thunder-storm  begins  early  in 
the  afternoon,  and  continues  until  near  sunset ;  the  sky  then 
becomes  cloudless  until  the  next  day  about  the  same  hour. 
After  some  weeks,  the  sun  being  no  longer  vertical,  the  rains 
become  less  frequent,  and  at  last  cease  for  months,  till  the  sun 
again  returns. 

The  only  seasons  of  the  Torrid  Zone  ^re  the  wet  season  while 
under  the  rain-belt,  and  the  dry  season  during  its  absence. 
Places  near  the  Equator  have  therefore  two  rainy  seasons  and 
two  dry  seasons  ;  other  parts  of  the  Torrid  Zone  have  one  rainy 
season  and  one  much  longer  dry  season. 

The  heat  and  moisture  of  the  tropical  rain-belt  produce  the  most 
luxuriant  vegetation  in  the  world. 

A  great  belt  of  deserts  stretches  across  the  Old  World  from  the 
Atlantic  nearly  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  :  it  is  caused  by  the  ab- 
sence of  ram-bearing  winds. 

These  rains  of  the  Torrid  Zone  are  called  periodical  rains ;  the 
more  irregular  ones  of  the  Temperate  Zones  are  called  variable 
rains. 


THE   TROPICAL   RAIN-BELT  AND   THE    DISTRIBUTION    OF   RAIN. 


^HTAHCTlc  Circle 


ftNTHRCTlc    Circle 


Questions  (I.)— 1.  What  is  climate?— 2.  Upon  what  does  it  depend?— 3.  What  is 
the  climate  of  the  Frigid  Zones  ? — i.  Of  the  low  plains  in  the  Torrid  Zone  ?  When  is 
it  moist  ?  When  dry  ?— 5.  Of  the  high  plateaus  in  that  zone  ?— 6.  Of  the  high  mount- 
ains ? — 7.  What  effect  have  winds  and  ocean  currents  ?  Which  have  the  greater  effect  ? 
—8.  What  is  the  rain-fall  of  a  country  .'—9.  The  tropical  rain-belt  ?    How  wide  is  it  ? 

(11.) — 6.  What  is  the  snow-line  ?  How  does  its  height  vary  ?— 7.  Describe  the 
effects  of  high  mountains  upon  ocean  winds.  What  two  principal  causes  modify  the 
climate  of  Western  Europe  ?  Of  Greenland  and  Labrador  ?  What  are  the  effects  ? — 
8.  What  is  the  average  annual  rain-fall  in  the  Torrid  Zone  ?  In  the  Temperate  Zones  ? 
In  the  Frigid  Zones?  What  effect  has  distance  from  the  sea?— 9.  When  is  a  place 
said  to  have  a  vertical  sun  ?  In  what  zone  can  this  occur  ?  How  does  it  affect  the 
heat  ?  The  evaporation  ?  Describe  the  tropical  rains.  Which  are  the  only  seasons 
in  the  Torrid  Zone  ?  What  seasons  at  the  Equator  ?  In  other  parts  of  that  zone  ? 
What  effects  do  the  heat  and  moisture  produce  ?  Where  is  the  great  belt  of  deserts? 
By  what  is  it  caused  ?    What  are  periodical  rains  ?    Variable  rains  ?    Where  do  they 


18 


RACES   OF   MEN.— CONDITIONS   OF    SOCIETY.— GOVERNMENT. 


XXV. 

KAOES  OF  MEN. 

1.  The  number  of  inhabitants  upon  the  earth  is 
estimated  at  about  1380  millions. 

2.  They  are  divided  into  five  great  races — the  Cauca- 
sian, the  Mongol,  the  Ethiopian,  the  Malay,  and  the  Amer- 
ican or  Indian. 

3.  The  Caucasian  or  white  race  is  the  most  widely 
spread.  It  occupies  Western  Asia,  Europe,  Northern  Af- 
rica, and  large  parts  of  North  and  South  America  and 
Australia. 

It  is  the  most  restless,  intelligent,  and  powerful  of  the  races,  and 
includes  all  the  great  historic  nations. 

4.  The  JHongol  or  yellow  race  is  found  chiefly  in  East- 
ern and  Northern  Asia. 

5.  Tlie  Ethiopian  or  black  race  is  found  chiefly  in 
Central  and  Southern  Africa. 

6.  The  Halay  or  brown  race  inhabits  Southeastern 
Asia  and  most  of  the  islands  of  the  Great  Archipelago 
and  the  Pacific. 

7.  The  American  or  red  race   inhabits   portions   of 

the  American  Continents  from  Cape  Horn  to  the  Arctic 

Ocean. 

The  Caucasian  and  Mongol  races  are  about  equal  in  numbers. 
Together  they  constitute  more  than  four  fifths  of  the  whole  hu- 
man family.  The  Ethiopian  race  comprises  about  one  seventh, 
the  Malay  about  one  twenty-fifth,  and  the  American  about  one 
one-hundredth  of  mankind. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  number  of  inhabitants  upon  the  earth  ? — 2.  Into 
how  many  races  are  they  divided  ?  What  are  they  ? — 3.  Which  is  most  widely  spread  > 
What  regions  does  it  occupy  ? — i.  Where  is  the  Mongol  or  yellow  race  found  ? — 5.  The 
Ethiopian  or  black  race .' — 6.  The  Malay  or  brown  race  ? — 7.  The  American  or  red 
race } 

(II.) — 3.  For  what  is  the  Caucasian  race  distinguished.' — 7.  What  part  of  mankind 
is  comprised  in  each  race  ? 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

XXVI. 

CONDITIONS  OF  SOCIETY. 

1.  Nations  and  tribes  may  be  divided,  in  respect  to 
their  social  condition,  into  five  classes :  savage,  barbarous, 
half  civilized,  civilized,  and  enlightened. 

2.  Savag^es  are  those  who  live  in  tribes,  and  obtain 
their  food  by  hunting  and  fishing. 

3.  Barbarians  are  those  who  possess  flocks  and 
herds,  and  practice  a  rude  agriculture. 

Those  who  live  in  tents,  like  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  are  called  nomads. 

4.  Half  -  civilized  nations    are    those    that    depend 


chiefly  upon  agriculture,  have  made  considerable  advance 
in  the  mechanic  arts,  and  have  towns  and  cities. 

5.  Civilized  nations  are  those  that  engage  in  com- 
merce, practice  the  art  of  writing,  and  have  made  con- 
siderable progress  in  knowledge  and  morality, 

6.  Enlightened  nations  are  those  civilized  nations 
that  possess  a  thorough  division  of  labor,  have  established 
general  systems  of  education,  and  have  made  the  greatest 
progress  in  knowledge  and  morality. 

Many  nations  are  partly  in  two  or  more  of  these  classes. 

The  enlightened  and  civilized  nations  are  nearly  all  Caucasian. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  Into  how  many  classes  may  nations  be  divided  in  respect  to 
social  condition  ?  What  are  they? — 2.  What  are  savages? — 3.  What  are  barbarians? 
— i.  What  are  half-civilized  nations .' — 5.  What  are  civilized  nations .' — 6.  What  are  en- 
lightened nations  ? 

(II.) — 3.  What  are  nomads?  Name  some  nomads.— 6.  Does  each  nation  belong 
exclusively  to  one  of  these  classes  ?  To  which  race  do  most  of  the  civilized  and  en- 
lightened nations  belong  ? 


XXVII. 

GOVEENMENT. 


1.  The  principal  forms  of  government  are  the  repub- 
lican and  the  monarchical. 

2.  A  republic  is  a  country  governed  by  men  who  are 
chosen  by  the  people.  The  chief  magistrate  is  usually 
called  a  president. 

Nearly  all  the  governments  of  the  New  World  are  republican. 

3.  A  monarchy  is  a  country  in  which  one  person 
succeeds  to  the  chief  power  by  inheritance,  and  holds  it 
for  life. 

Nearly  all  the  governments  of  the  Old  World  are  monarchical. 
An  unlimited  monarchy  or  despotism  is  one  in  which  the  will  of 

the  monarch  is  the  supreme  law. 
A  limited  monarchy  is  one  in  which  the  power  of  the  ruler  is 

limited  by  a  system  of  laws  called  a  constitution. 

4.  A  kingdom  is  a  country  governed  by  a  king  or 
queen. 

5.  An  empire  is  a  monarchy,  usually  of  great  extent. 
Most  empires  are  unlimited  monarchies. 

The  sovereign  is  called  an  emperor,  sultan,  shah,  czar,  or  mikado. 
G.  The  capital  of  a  country  is  the  seat  of  its  govern- 
ment. 

7.  The  metropolis  is  the  largest  city. 

Questions  (I.)— 1-  What  are.the  principal  forms  of  government  ?— 2.  What  is  a  re- 
public ?  What  is  the  title  of  its  chief  magistrate  ?— 3.  What  is  a  monarchy  .'—4.  What 
is  a  kingdom  ? — 5.  An  empire  ?  Is  it  limited  or  unlimited  ? — 6.  What  is  the  capital  of 
a  country? — 7.  The  metropolis? 

(II.)— 2.  What  is  the  form  of  most  of  the  governments  of  the  New  World  ?— 3.  Of 
the  Old  World  ?  What  is  an  unlimited  monarchy  ?  What  is  a  limited  monarchy  ?— 
5.  What  titles  have  the  sovereigns  of  empires? 


A  POLAR  SCENE. 


1.  The  surface  of  North  America  is  naturally  di- 
vided into  four  parts:  the  Western  Highland, the  Eastern 
Highland,  the  Low  Central  Plain,  and  the  Atlantic  Plain. 

2.  The  Western  Highland,  or  Great  Plateau  Belt, 
extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuan- 
tepec.  The  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges  are  on  its 
western  border,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  divide  it  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts. 

These  ranges  are  the  highest  in  North  America,  and  reach  their 
greatest  elevation,  about  14,000  to  15,000  feet,  in  the  broad  mid- 
dle region  of  the  table-land  ;  the  table-land  itself  is  quite  low  in 
the  north,  but  rises  gradually  to  nearly  8000  feet  in  the  plateau 
of  Mexico.  At  the  ends  of  this  highland  are  many  volcanoes. 
Of  these,  St.  Elias  in  the  north  and  Popocatepetl  in  the  south  are 
the  highest  peaks  on  the  continent. 

The  long  and  mountainous  isthmus  of  Central  America  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  continuation  of  this  plateau  belt. 

3.  The  Eastern  Highland  extends  from  Labrador 
nearly  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  mountains  are  the  low 
ranges  of  the  Appalachian  system. 


The  highest  peaks  are  from  6000  to  6700  feet  in  elevation, 
very  little  table-land. 


It  has 


4.  The  Atlantic  Plain  is  the  strip  of  low  land  be- 
tween the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  the  ocean. 

5.  The  liovr  Central  Plain  lies  between  the  two 
highlands,  and  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

It  is  crossed  nearly  midway  by  a  low  swell  called  the  Height  of 
Land,  which  divides  it  into  two  gentle  and  opposite  slopes :  the 

7* 


northern  slope  is  the  Arctic  Plain ;  nearly  all  of  the  other  slope 
or  Southern  Plain,  lies  in  the  basin  or  valley  of  the  Mississippi. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  How  is  the  surface  of  North  America  naturally  divided  ?  Name 
them. — 2.  Where  is  the  Western  Highland?  What  and  where  are  its  principal  mount- 
ains.' — 3.  Where  is  the  Eastern  Highland  ?  What  mountains  has  it? — 4.  Where  is 
the  Atlantic  Plain  .'—5.  The  Low  Central  Plain  ? 

(II.) — 2.  Which  are  the  highest  ranges  in  North  America  ?  WMiere  is  their  greatest 
elevation?  How  high  are  they?  Describe  the  table-land.  Where  are  volcanoes  found? 
Name  two.  For  what  remarkable?  What  is  said  of  Central  America? — 3.  How  high 
are  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Appalachian  system  ?  Has  the  Eastern  Highland  any 
table-land.' — n.  By  what  is  the  Low  Central  Plain  divided?  Into  what?  What  name 
has  each  ?    In  what  basin  is  the  southern  slope  ? 


XXX. 

■  CLIMATE,  VEGETATION,  AND  ANIMALS. 

1.  The  West  Indies,  Central  America,  and  a  large  part 
of  Mexico  have  a  tropical  or  constantly  warm  climate. 

The  season  of  tropical  rains  lasts  many  weeks,  the  rest  of  the  year 
being  dry. 

The  vegetation  is  luxuriant — coffee,  sugar,  maize,  cotton,  and  to- 
bacco are  extensively  cultivated,  and  the  banana,  pine-apple, 
lemon,  orange,  and  other  tropical  fruits  are  produced  with  little 
labor.  European  grains  are  grown  on  the  plateaus.  The  forests 
abound  in  mahogany,  rose-wood,  and  palm-trees. 

2.  The  northern  third  of  the  continent  has  a  very  cold 
climate,  excepting  a  strip  along  the  western  coast. 

The  Polar  Current  passes  along  the  eastern  coast  to  Newfoundland. 

Ice  nearly  closes  the  broad  entrance  to  Baffin  Bay,  and  Hudson 

Bay  is  open  only  about  six  weeks  in  the  year. 
The  western  coasts,  from  Alaska  to  the  Columbia  River,  have  a 


i — r-\ — r— 1 — I — I — i — r 

Irom        wahliiiiKton. 


Jjoiigitiiilo     J-^iist. 


[Cofyrit/il,  1875.  h  Itarjter  d  JiruUiert-] 


QUESTIONS   ON    THE    MAP.— CLIMATE,  VEGETATIO>J,  AND    ANIMALS. 


21 


[For  continuation  of  page  19,  see  next  column. 


XXVIII. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

Outlines. — What  three  oceans  wash  the  shores  of 
North  America?  What  great  island  northeast  of  the 
continent  ?  What  archipelago  between  them  ?  What 
is  the  general  direction  of  the  Arctic  coast  ?  What 
great  bay  breaks  this  coast  ?  What  island  at  its  en- 
trance? What  strait  leads  to  that  bay  ?  What  island 
near  the  eastern  point  of  the  continent  ?  What  gulf 
and  strait  cut  it  off?  What  is  the  general  direction 
of  the  Atlantic  coast?  What  two  peninsulas  partly 
enclose  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  What  strait  and  what 
channel  lead  to  that  gulf?  What  island  at  the  en- 
trance ?  In  what  archipelago?  What  ocean  current 
passes  through  these  waters?  What  is  the  general 
direction  of  the  Pacific  coast?  What  peninsula  near 
its  northern  extremity?  What  peninsula  and  gulf 
break  the  southwest  shore?  What  long  isthmus  con- 
nects North  and  South  America?  Between  what 
smaller  isthmuses  does  it  extend  ? 

High  Surface.  —  What  two  great  highlands  in 
North  America?  Which  is  the  greater?  What  is 
its  general  direction  ?  At  what  ocean  does  it  end  on 
the  north  ?  At  what  isthmus  on  the  south  ?  {Telman- 
tepec.)  What  mountains  near  its  western  border? 
What  high  plain  forms  its  eastern  part  ?  What 
mountains  separate  this  plain  from  the  rest  of  the 
highlands  ?  What  high  plateau  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  highland  ?  AVhat  plateau  basin  near  the  cen- 
tre ?  In  what  direction  does  the  Eastern  Highland 
extend  ?  What  mountain  system  does  it  contain  ? 
Near  which  coast  of  North  America  are  there  volca- 
noes ?  Near  what  river  is  the  central  group  ?  Where 
is  the  greatest  group  ?  Where  the  northern  ?  Name 
one  in  each  group.     What  volcano  in  Iceland  ? 

Lowlands  and  Drainage.— What  plain  between  the 
two  highlands  ?  What  ocean  north  of  it  ?  What  gulf 
south  ?  What  name  is  given  to  its  northern  portion  ? 
What  name  to  its  southern  portion  ?  What  low  swell 
of  land  separates  the  Southern  from  the  Arctic  Plain  ? 
What  low  plateau  north  of  the  Arctic  Plain  ?  What 
rivers  drain  the  Arctic  Plain  ?  What  lakes  connected 
with  them  ?  What  river  drains  the  greater  part  of 
the  Southern  Plain  ?  Name  its  four  chief  branches? 
What  chain  of  lakes  in  the  Southern  Plain  ?  What 
river  drains  them  ?  What  lowland  plain  between  the 
Eastern  Highland  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  Name 
the  chief  rivers  which  drain  the  Western  Highland. 


much  milder  climate  and  frequent  rains,  the 
effect  of  the  warm  ocean  currents  and  counter 
trade-winds  of  the  Pacific. 

3.  The  remaining  portions  of  the  conti- 
nent have  a  more  varied  climate — warm  in 
the  south,  colder  in  the  north,  and  very  dry 
in  the  Great  Highland. 

Moist  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  cause  frequent  rains  in  the 
Southern  and  Atlantic  Plains  and  in  the 
Eastern  Highland.  Excepting  the  prairies, 
these  regions  were  originally  one  vast  forest 
of  oak,  chestnut,  pine,  and  other  trees,  of 
which  a  large  part  in  the  lowlands  has  been 
cleared  away.  This  forest  extends  into  the 
southern  part  of  the  Arctic  Plain,  where  the 
trees  are  mostly  pines  and  firs  ;  farther  north 
the  trees  are  small,  and  at  last  disappear, 
and  mosses  -and  lichens  are  the  only  vege- 
tation. 

In  winter  the  tropical  rain-belt  passes  to  the 
south  and  the  counter  trade-winds  of  the  Pa- 
cific shift  in  the  same  direction  (see  pages  16 
and  17).  This  gives  a  rainy  season  of  sev- 
eral months  to  the  region  between  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
greater  part  of  the  moisture  falls  between  the 
summits  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  coast, 
and  is  a  chief  cause  of  the  vast  crops  of 
wheat  and  other  grains  grown  in  that  region. 

The  moist  regions  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on 
the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and 
from  the  Columbia  River  to  Alaska,  are  cov- 
ered with  forests  of  gigantic  pines,  cedars,  and 
other  evergreens. 

4.  The  polar  bear,  reindeer,  musk-ox, 
moose,  walrus,  grizzly  bear,  and  many  fur- 
bearing  animals,  are  found  in  the  northern 
parts  of  the  continent,  and  great  herds  of  the 
bison,  or  buffalo,  roam  over  the  high  plains 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Among 
other  wild  animals  are  the  deer,  wolf,  fox, 
beaver,  and  alligator.     Great  numbers  of 


22 


VEGETATION.— POLITICAL   NORTH  AMERICA:   QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP.— REVIEW  EXERCISES. 


domesticated  animals,  such  as  the  horse,  ox,  sheep,  and 
hog,  are  possessed  by  the  civilized  inhabitants ;  these  were 
originally  introduced  from  Europe. 

5.  Cotton  is  the  chief  production  of  the  lowlands  near 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  maize  of  the  central,  and  wheat 
of  the  northern  portions  of  the  valley  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. 

The  rain-fall  upon  the  slopes  of  the  lofty  mountains  bordering  the 
Great  Highland  leaves  but  little  moisture  to  be  carried  over  to 
the  table-lands ;  these,  including  those  parts  of  the  plateau  of 
Mexico  that  are  not  visited  by  the  tropical  rain-belt,  are  there- 
fore extremely  dry  :  the  whole  legion  is  nearly  destitute  of  vege- 


tation— the  sage-bush  and  cactus  are  the  principal  plants  which 
the  parched  soil  produces. 

Questions  (I.)— 1.  What  parts  of  North  America  have  a  tropical  climate?— 
2.  What  parts  have  a  cold  climate?  What  exception  to  this?— 3.  What  is  the  climate 
of  the  rest  of  the  continent?—*.  What  wild  animals  are  found  in  the  Arctic  Plain? 
In  the  high  western  plains?  What  other  wild  animals  are  found?  What  is  said  of 
domesticated  animals  ?— 5.  Where  is  cotton  the  chief  production  ?    Maize  ?     Wheat  ? 

(II.)— 1.  What  is  said  of  the  rain-fall  in  the  tropical  climates?  Of  the  vegeta- 
tion? What  staples  are  cultivated  ?  What  fruits?  What  grains?  Name  some  of 
the  forest  trees.— 2.  How  do  the  polar  currents  affect  the  northeastern  coasts  of  the 
continent?  What  is  the  climate  of  the  western  coast  north  of  the  Columbia  River? 
Why  ?— 3.  What  are  the  chief  sources  of  the  rains  of  the  southeastern  portions  of  the 
continent  ?  Describe  these  regions  ?  What  is  said  of  the  vegetation  of  the  Arctic 
Plain  ?  What  is  the  cause  of  the  rainy  season  in  the  region  between  the  Pacific 
Ocean  and  the  Rocky  Mountains?  What  is  its  effect?  What  is  said  of  the  forests 
of  the  moist  regions?— 5.  Why  is  the  Great  Highland  so  dry?  How  does  this  affect 
the  vegetation  ? 


POLITICAL    NORTH    AMERICA. 


XXXI. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

[Capital  cities  are  printed  in  Gothic  type,  as  WASHINGTON.] 

Countries. — What  two  countries  occupy  the  greater  part  of  North 
America?  Which  is  farther  north?  What  country  northeast  of  British 
America?  Northwest?  Southwest  of  the  United  States?  Southeast 
of  Mexico  ?    Name  the  countries  of  North  America. 

Danish  America. — To  what  country  in  Europe  does  it  belong  ? 
(Denmark.)  Name  its  two  principal  islands.  What  is  the  capital  of  Ice- 
land ?    Which  is  the  most  northern  town  in  North  America? 

British  America. — To  what  country  in  Europe  does  it  belong? 
{Great  Britain.)  What  islands  off  the  western  coast  of  British  Amer- 
ica? What  peninsula  in  the  eastern  part?  In  the  southeast?  Name 
four  capes  of  British  America.     What  mountains  in  the  western  part? 

What  name  is  given  to  the  greater  part  of  British  America?  (The 
Dominion  of  Cafiada.)  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  two  cities  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  River?     What  city  in  Nova  Scotia? 

United  States. — What  country  north  of  the  United  States  ?  South- 
west? What  gulf  south?  What  islands  southeast  of  Florida?  Name 
the  capes  on  the  east  coast  of  the  United  States.  What  cape  at  the  south- 
eastern point  of  the  United  States  ?    What  capes  on  the  west  coast  ? 

What  mountains  west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  ?  What  two  bays  on  the 
east  coast  of  the  United  States?  What  river  flows  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  near  Sandy  Hook  ?  What  river  between  Mexico  and  the  United 
States?  Into  what  does  it  flow?  What  mountains  does  the  Columbia 
break  through?    What  lake  between  the  Colorado  and  the  Columbia? 

What  two  cities  near  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay  ?  What  is  Wash- 
ington ?  {The  capital  of  the  United  States.)  What  city  northeast  of 
Baltimore?  Northeast  of  Philadelphia?  Northeast  of  New  York  ?  At 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  ?  Near  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  ?  On 
Lake  Michigan  ?  On  the  Pacific  coast  ?  On  the  north  bank  of  the 
Ohio  ? 

To  what  country  does  Alaska  belong  ?  What  is  the  name  of  its  chief 
river  ?  Into  what  does  it  flow  ?  What  islands  in  the  southern  part  ? 
What  town  on  Baranoff  Island  ?     What  town  on  Kodiak  Island  ? 

Mexico. — What  peninsula  and  gulf  in  the  northwest  of  Mexico? 
What  cape  at  the  end  of  the  peninsula?  What  mountains  in  Northern 
Mexico?  What  is  the  capital ?  What  volcano  near  it?  What  city  east 
of  Mexico  ? 

Central  America. — What  waters  wash  the  shores  of  Central  America? 
What  lake  in  Central  America  ?  What  city  in  the  northwest  ?  Name 
the  four  principal  islands  in  the  West  Indies?    What  city  in  Cuba? 


XXXII. 

EEVIEW  EXEEOISES. 

[For  models,  see  Review  of  Western  Hemisphere,  page  9.] 

CoVLniri^.  — Where  is  it i    How  bounded?    What  is  the  capital? 
Model. — Mexico  is  in  the  southwestern  part  of  North  America.     It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  United  States,  on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the 
south  by  Central  America  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific. 
The  capital  city  is  Mexico. 

Danish  America?  British  America?  United  States?  Mexico?  Cen- 
tral America  ? 

Islands. — Arctic  Archipelago?  Southampton, B.?  Greenland, D.?  Ice- 
land, D.?  Cape  Breton,  B.  ?  Newfoundland,  B.  ?  Bermuda  Islands,  B.  ? 
West  Indies  ?  Bahama  Islands,  B.  ?  Jamaica,  B.  ?  Cuba,  S.  ?  Hayti,  I.  ? 
Porto  Rico,  S.  ?   Vancouver,  B.  ?   Queen  Charlotte,  B.  ?   Baranoff,  U.  S.  ? 

NO'l'E. — The  countries  to  which  they  belong  are  thus  indicated  ;  Denmark,  D. ; 
Great  Britain,  B.;  Spain,  S. ;  United  States,  U.  S.;  Independent,  I. 

Peninsulas. — Labrador?  Nova  Scotia?  Florida?  Yucatan?  Alaska? 
California  ? 

Capes.— Farewell ?  Race?  Sable,  A^?  Cod?  Sandy  Hook?  Hat- 
teras?    Sable,  5.?    St.Lucas?   Prince  of  Wales?   Mendocino?    Flattery? 

Isthmuses. —  What  countries  does  it  connect? 
Tehuantepec?     Panama?     Isthmus  of  Central  America? 

Mountains. — Appalachian?  Rocky?  Sierra  Madre?  Sierra  Nevada? 
Cascade?     Coast  ranges?     Popocatepetl  (v.)?     Hecla(v.)? 

Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Bays.— Baffin  ?  Hudson  ?  James  ?  St.  Lawrence  ? 
Delaware  ?  ChesapeUke  ?  Mexico  ?  Campeachy  ?  Honduras  ?  Behr- 
ing?     Caribbean?     California? 

Straits.— Davis ?    Hudson?     Belle  Isle?     Florida?    Behring? 

Elvers. — Yukon?  Mackenzie?  Churchill?  Nelson?  Severn?  St. 
Lawrence?  Hudson?  Mississippi?  Missouri?  Arkansas?  Ohio? 
Rio  Grande  ?     Red  ?    Colorado  ?    Columbia  ? 

Lakes.  —  Where  situated  ?     What  outlet  has  it  ? 
Great  Bear?     Great  Slave?     Athabasca?     Winnipeg?     Superior? 
Michigan?     Huron?     Erie?    Ontario?    Great  Salt?     Nicaragua? 

Cities  and  Towns.— /«  what  country  is  it?  In  what  part  of  it?  On 
or  near  what  7vater  ? 

Reykjavik?  Upernavik?  Halifax?  Ottawa?  Montreal?  Quebec? 
Washington?  Philadelphia?  Boston?  New  York?  Baltimore?  New 
Orleans?  Cincinnati?  St.  Louis?  Chicago?  San  Francisco ?  Mexico? 
Vera  Cruz?     Guatemala?     Havana? 


2 L I L L L L L L L 1 L L / / 


Copyright,  1875,  by  Harptr  <fi  Brothar$, 


24 


PHYSICAL  UNITED  STATES:   QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAR— POSITION,  AREA,  AND   SURFACE. 


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26 


WESTERN    HALF   OF   THE   UNTFED   STATES.— EASTERN    HALF   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


4.  Three  large  and  rapid  rivers  drain  the  greater  part 
of  this  Plateau  Belt:  the  Columbia  River  on  the  north 
breaks  through  the  lofty  Cascade  range,  and  flows  into 
the  Pacific;  the  Colorado  on  the  south  reaches  the  Gulf 
of  California  after  passing  through  a  number  of  great 
canons,  which  are  a  series  of  the  most  frightful  mountain 
gorges  in  the  world ;  the  Rio  Grande  flows  from  the  mount- 
ains bordering  the  Colorado  Plateau  through  a  long,  nar- 
row, and  elevated  valley  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  beds  of  nearly  all  the  rivers  of  the  entire  high- 
land region  are  far  below  the  general  level  of  the  country 
through  which  they  flow. 

5.  The  Western  Highland  has  a  warm  and  very 
dry  climate. 

The  warm  southwest  winds  from  the  Pacific  discharge  most  of 
their  moisture  as  rain  or  snow  on  the  high  cold  slopes  and  sum- 
mits of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges,  and  much  of  the 
remaining  portion  upon  the  lofty  sides  and  tops  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  plateaus  are  consequently  dry  and  barren, 
while  the  coast  regions  have  abundant  rain  and,  particularly  to- 
wards the  north,  are  covered  with  dense  forests.  In  like  manner, 
the  winds  from  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  lose  their 
moisture  before  they  penetrate  so  far  inland,  and  in  conse- 
quence a  large  part  of  the  Great  Plains  at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  is  one  of  the  most  desolate  and  arid  regions  of  the 
continent.  The  cactus  and  the  sage-bush  are  the  characteristic 
vegetation  ;  they  indicate  a  very  dry  climate.  Wherever  the 
streams  from  the  melting  snows  of  the  mountains  can  be  used 
for  irrigation  abundant  crops  can  be  raised,  but  the  greater  part 
of  the  entire  highland  is  hopelessly  barren. 

6.  The  chief  wealth  of  the  Western  Highland  is  in 
the  exhaustless  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  other  valuable 
minerals  with  which  the  entire  mountain  district  abounds. 

Nowhere  else  on  the  globe  is  there  known  to  be  so  extensive  a  de- 
posit of  the  precious  metals.  There  are  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  square  miles  rich  with  ores  of  gold  and  silver. 

1.  The  most  remarkable  animal  is  the  bison,  or  Amer- 
ican buffalo. 

Vast  herds  of  these  animals,  sometimes  numbering  scores  of  thou- 
sands, roam  from  one  end  of  the  Great  Plains  to  the  other, 
feeding  on  the  short  dried  buffalo-grass,  the  growth  of  the  brief 
spring  rains. 

8.  Between  the  Western  Highland  and  the  Pacific  lies 
the  small  rich  lowland  of  the  California  Basin. 

Questions  (I.)— 1.  What  is  the  character  of  the  western  half  of  the  United  States? 
By  what  and  how  is  it  divided?— 2.  What  and  where  are  the  Great  Plains?— 3.  What 
is  the  western  half  of  the  highland  called  ?  What  mountains  border  it  ?  What  high 
mountains  parallel  and  close  to  the  Coast  ranges?  Where  is  the  Great  Basin? 
Where  is  the  Colorado  Plateau  ?  Where  is  the  plain  of  the  Columbia  ?— 4.  How 
many  great  rivers  drain  the  Plateau  Belt?  What  is  said  of  the  Columbia?  Of  the 
Colorado?  What  are  the  canons?  Which  is  the  third  great  river?  What  is  said 
of  most  of  the  river  beds?— 5.  What  is  the  gencr,il  character  of  the  climate  of  the 
Western  Highland?— 6.  In  what  is  the  chief  wealth  of  the  highland?— 7.  Which  is 
the  most  remarkable  animal  ? — 8.  What  and  where  is  the  California  Basin  ? 


(II.) — 2.  What  is  said  of  a  large  part  of  the  Great  Plains  ?     Where  are  the  plains  j 

highest?     How  high  are  they?     Which  of  their  rivers  are  navigable?     Which  are  ' 

not?    Why? — 3.  Which  are  the  highest  mountains  in  North  America?     How  high  are  ' 

they  ?     How  many  principal  plateaus  ?     With  what  is  the  whole  tract  ribbed  ?    To  ' 
what  has  it  been  likened?    What  does  the  Great  Basin  enclose?     By  what  separated 
from  the  Colorado  Plateau?    How  high  is  it?    How  high  is  the  Colorado  Plateau? 
How  high  is  the  plain  of  the  Columbia? — 5.  What  kind  of  a  climate  has  the  Plateau 

Belt  of  the  Western  Highland?    Why?    The  Great  Plains ?    Why?    The  Coast  re-  \ 
gions  ?     Why  ?     What  plants   are   characteristic  ?     What  do  such  plants  indicate  ? 

What  is  said  of  irrigation?     What  is  the  source  of  the  water  that  may  be  used  for  j 

this  purpose?     What  portion  of  the  region  is  barren? — 0.  What  is  said  of  the  quan-  | 

tity  of  gold  and  silver? — 7.  What  is  said  of  the  buffaloes  and  their  food?  i 


XXXVI. 

EASTEEN  HALF  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1.  The  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  presents  a 
strong  contrast  to  the  western  half.  It  is  fertile  and  well 
watered  throughout. 

It  contains  the  Eastern  Highland  and  two  important 
lowland  plains. 

2.  The  Eastern  Highland  is  small  and  low  in  com- 
parison with  the  Western. 

It  consists  of  the  several  parallel  ranges  of  the  Appalachian  system, 
and  extends  from  the  Dominion  of  Canada  almost  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Its  highest  peaks  are  about  as  high  as  the  plains  at 
the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  contains  many  fertile  ele- 
vated valleys,  but  no  extensive  plateaus. 

This  highland  is  rich  in  water-power  and  in  mines  of 
coal  and  iron.  At  its  nearest  approach  to  the  Atlantic 
coast  it  is  intersected  by  a  remarkable  depression,  which 
contains  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and  the  Mohawk,  and 
forms  the  most  important  natural  highway  of  commerce 
on  the  whole  continent. 

3.  The  Eastern  Highland  divides  the  lowlands  into  two 
unequal  plains — the  Atlantic  Plain  on  the  east,  and  the 
Great  Central  or  Mississippi  Plain  on  the  west. 

4.  The  Oreat  Central  Plain  lies  between  the  two 

highlands. 

It  extends  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  it  joins  the  Atlantic 
Plain,  to  the  Great  Lakes,  where  it  unites  with  a  narrow  belt  of 
lowland  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley. 

The  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  includes  not  only  most  of  the  Great 
Central  Plain,  but  all  of  the  land  between  the  crests  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  on  one  side  and  those  of  the  .\lleghanies  on  the  other. 
It  therefore  embraces  a  large  part  of  both  highlands.  It  has  been 
likened  to  a  broad  trough,  the  Mississippi  lying  in  the  lowest  part. 

5.  The  Mississippi  and  its  branches  together  con- 
stitute the  most  extensive  system  of  navigated  rivers  in 
the  world. 

The  Amazon  system,  in  South  .America,  is  larger,  but  is  as  yet  but 
little  navigated. 

The  Missouri  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  trib- 
utaries, being  longer  than  the  entire  course  of  the  Missis 
sippi  itself,  and,  like  it,  navigable  almost  to  its  source. 


EASTERN    HALF   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES :    CLIMATE,  VEGETATION,  ETC. 


27 


6.  The  Atlantic  Plain  is  a  long  belt  of  lowland  be- 
tween the  Eastern  Highland  and  the  ocean. 

It  is  widest  at  the  south,  but  narrows  rapidly  towards  the  mouth 
of  the  Hudson  River,  where  it  ahnost  disappears.  Farther  east 
it  again  widens  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

The  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  Plain  cross  it  at  right  angles 

to   the  line   of  the   highland,  in  which  they  have   their 

sources. 

Most  of  them  are  navigable  till  interrupted  by  falls  or  rapids  at 
some  distance  from  the  sea.  These  falls  furnish  valuable  water- 
power,  and  have  determined  the  location  of  many  important 
cities. 

The  Atlantic  Plain  is  drained  by  numerous  short,  separate,  and 
parallel  rivers,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  country  by  a  few  great  river 
systems. 

7.  The  climate  of  the  low  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States  is  in  general  much  cooler  than 
that  of  the  Western  Highland  in  the 
same  latitude. 


Dense  forests  cover  the  Atlantic  Plain,  the  Eastern 
Highland,  and  the  neighboring  parts  of  the  Great  Cen- 
tral Plain,  except  where  cleared  for  the  purpose  of  cultiva- 
tion. 

If  from  Toledo  on  Lake  Erie  two  lines  be  drawn,  one  to  Galveston 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  other  to  the  head-waters  of  the 
Red  River  of  the  North,  nearly  all  the  forests  in  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  will  be  east  of  these  lines. 

The  southern  portions  of  both  plains  constitute  the  region  of 
abundant  summer  showers  ;  without  these  cotton  could  not  be 
cultivated.  Rice,  sugar-cane,  Indian  corn,  and  tobacco  are  also 
characteristic  agricultural  productions.     (See  Rain  Map.) 

Immense  prairies  occupy  the  rest  of  the  Great  Central 

Plain. 

The  prairie  region  is  broad  in  the  north  and  narrow  in  the  south. 
It  has  long  and  frequent  summer  droughts.     These  do  not  pre- 


Frequent  rains  are  brought  at  all  seasons 
by  the  moist  winds  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Great 
Lakes.  The  rain-fall  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  increases  towards  the  south  ;  on 
the  Pacific  coast  towards  the  north  ; 
Lower  California  in  Mexico  is  almost 
rainless.  The  winters  of  the  eastern 
half  are  long  and  severe  in  the  north, 
but  mild  in  the  south  ;  the  summers  are 
generally  hot. 

8.  The  fertile  soil,  warm  summers, 
abundant  rains,  and  great  range  of 
latitude  make  the  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  quantity,  variety, 
and  value  of  its  agricultural  produc- 
tions, the  richest  large  section  of  the 
globe  inhabited  by  a  single  nation. 


The  value  of  these  advantages  is  greatly  increased  by  the  other 
physical  conditions  already  considered.  The  average  fall  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  and  their  chief  branches  in  the  Central 
Plain,  is  only  about  four  inches  to  the  mile  ;  that  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, including  the  Great  Lakes,  is  still  less :  this  opens  the 
whole  region  to  steam  navigation.  The  generally  level  face  of  the 
country  makes  it  easy  to  construct  railroads,  canals,  and  common 
roads.  Of  railways  there  were  in  1874  about  70,000  miles  in 
operation,  or  nearly  as  many  as  in  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  It 
will  therefore  be  seen  that — 

9.  The  physical  geography  of  the  eastern  half  of 
the  United  States  gives  it  agricultural  and  commercial 
advantages  unequalled  by  those  of  any  other  country  on 
the  globe. 

10.  The  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  may  be 
divided  into  two  regions  differing  remarkably  in  vegeta- 
tion, in  consequence  of  difference  in  rain-fall. 


vent  the  extensive  cultivation  of  wheat  and  other  grains,  which 
are  produced  in  enormous  quantities.  The  prairies  are  rapidly 
being  converted  into  farms  covered  with  hedge-rows,  orchards, 
and  forest  trees. 

11.  Large  wild  animals,  such  as  wolves,  wild-cats,  pan- 
thers, bears,  and  deer,  once  abounded.  Though  still  found 
in  some  districts,  they  are  greatly  reduced  in  numbers. 
The  country  now  contains  millions  of  domesticated  ani- 
mals, among  which  are  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  horses. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  character  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States?  In  what  two  particulars?  What  subdivisions  does  it  contain.' — 3.  How  does 
the  Eastern  Highland  compare  with  the  Western?  In  what  is  it  remarkably  rich? 
By  what  is  it  intersected  ?    What  valleys  in  this  depression  ?    What  does  it  form .' — 

3.  How  does  this  highland  divide  the  lowlands?     What  name  is  given  to  each? — 

4.  Where  is  the  Great  Central  Plain? — 5.  What  is  said  of  the  Mississippi  River?  Of 
the  Missouri  River? — 6.  What  and  where  is  the  Atlantic  Plain?  How  do  its  rivers 
cross  it? — 7.  What  is  said  of  the  climate  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States? — 

[For  the  remaining  questions  on  this  section,  see  page  29.] 


POLITICAL   UNITED    STATES:    DIVISIONS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS. 


29 


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Longitude    'West     97    from    { 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

What  group  of  states  lies  farthest  east  ?  What  is 
the  capital  of  each?  Where  situated?  Name  one 
other  large  city  in  each.  Where  situated?  Which 
of  these  states  has  two  capitals  ?  Name  the  capital 
and  one  or  two  other  cities  in  each  of  the  Middle  At- 
lantic States.  In  the  South  Atlantic  States.  In  the 
North  Central  States.     In  the  South  Central.     In  the 


West  Central.  In  the  States  of  the  Plains.  In  the 
Rocky  Mountain  States.  In  the  Basin  States.  In 
the  Pacific  States.  Which  of  these  cities  are  on  or 
near  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  The  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  On 
the  Great  Lakes?  On  the  Ohio  River?  On  the  Mis- 
sissippi River?  On  the  Missouri  River?  In  or  near 
the  Rocky  Mountains  ?  Between  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Mountains  ?  West 
of  these  last  chains  ? 


In  what  direction  from  Indianapolis  is  l.ouisville 
Cincinnati?  Pittsburgh?  Cleveland?  Detroit?  Chr 
cago?  Milwaukee?  In  what  direction  from  Chicago 
is  Milwaukee?  Davenport?  St.  Paul  ?  Omaha; 
Buffalo  ?  In  what  direction  from  St.  Louis  is  Omahai 
Evansville  ?  Memphis  ?  Louisville  ?  Denver  ?  Il 
what  direction  from  New  Orleans  is  Galveston  ?  Mo 
bile  ?    Vicksburg  ?     Montgomery  ? 

Which  is  the  largest  state  or  territory  ?    The  small 


.'Omriail.  U1W 


ongituiie   TVeat   1J5 


ulnnytan. 


est?  The  most  northeasterly  ?  Southeasterly?  South- 
erly? Southwesterly?  Northwesterly?  Which  state 
has  the  longest  sea  coast  ?  Lake  coast  ?  What  states 
are  separated  by  the  Mississippi  River?  By  the  Ohio 
River?     Missouri  River? 

What  4)arallel  bounds  the  United  States  on  the 
north?  (49°)  On  the  south?  (25°)  In  what  longi- 
tude from  Greenwich  is  its  eastern  point  ?  Its  western 
point?     What  states  are  crossed  by  the  meridian  of 


Washington  ?  What  is  the  longitude  of  Washington  ?* 
Of  Boston?  New  York?  Philadelphia?  Charleston? 
Cincinnati  ?  Chicago  ?  St.  Louis  ?  New  Orleans  ? 
What  cities  on  or  near  the  parallel  40°  N.  ?  In  what 
zone  is  the  United  States? 

What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  rivers  east  of 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  ?   Which  is  the  largest  At- 
lantic river  of  the  North  Atlantic  States  ?    Name  three 
*  Use  longitude  from  Greenwich. 


in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States.  Seven  in  the  South  At- 
lantic. Three  flowing  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  Five  west  of  it.  Name  four  east- 
ern branches  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Five  western 
branches.  Four  southern  branches  of  the  Ohio  River. 
Three  northern  branches.  Three  western  branches  of 
the  Missouri.  Two  branches  of  the  Columbia.  The 
chief  branch  of  the  Colorado.  Two  rivers  in  Cali- 
fornia.   What  lake  between  Vermont  and  New  York  ? 


9arp<r  4  Sr«A#f».l 


32 


REVIEW  OF  THE  POLITICAL  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 


XXXVIII. 

EEVIEW  OF  POLITICAL  MAP  OF  UNITED  STATES. 

Bound  the  state.     Name  the  capital.     The  largest  city. 
THE     LO\V    HALF. 

ATLANTIC   STATES. 

Capital.  Largest  City. 

r  1.  Maine Augusta Portland. 

2.  New  Hampshire.   Concord Manchester. 

3.  Vermont Montpelier Burlington. 

4.  Massachusetts. . .   Boston Boston. 

5.  Rhode  Island. .  .  \  Providence  )         providence. 
( Newport      ) 

6.  Connecticut Hartford New  Haven. 


Northern 
Sivision. 


Middle 
Division. 


Southern 
Division. 


Northern 
Division. 


Southern 
Division. 


Western 
Division. 


\. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

ri. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4, 
5. 

1, 

2, 
3. 
4, 
5, 

1, 
2, 
3. 
4. 
5. 


New  York Albany New  York. 

New  Jersey Trenton Newark. 

Pennsylvania Harrisburg Philadelphia. 

Delaware Dover Wilmington. 

Maryland Annapolis Baltimore. 

Virginia Richmond Richmond. 

North  Carolina. . .  Raleigh Wilmington. 

South  Carolina.  .  .Columbia Charleston. 

Georgia Atlanta Savannah. 

Florida Tallahassee Jacksonville. 


CENTRAL 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Michigan 

West  Virginia. . . . 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Louisiana 


STATES. 

Columbus Cincinnati. 

Indianapolis ....  Indianapolis. 

Springfield Chicago. 

Madison Milwaukee. 

Lansing Detroit. 

Wheeling Wheeling. 

Frankfort Louisville. 

Nashville Nashville. 

Montgomery.. .  .Mobile. 
Jackson Vicksburg. 

St.  Paul Minneapolis. 

Des  Moines  ....  Des  Moines. 
Jefferson  City ...  St.  Louis. 

Little  Rock Little  Rock. 

New  Orleans. . . .  New  Orleans. 


States  of 
the  Plains. 


Rocky 

Mountain 

States. 


Basin 
States. 


Pacific 
States, 


THE     HIGH  HALF. 

WESTERN   or  HIGHLAND  STATES. 

Capital.  Largest  City. 

1.  Dakota  T. Yankton Yankton. 

2.  Nebraska Lincoln Omaha. 

3.  Kansas Topeka ... Leavenworth. 

4.  Indian  T. Vinita. 

L5.  Texas Austin Galveston. 

r  1.  Montana  T. Helena Helena. 

J  2.  Wyoming  T. Cheyenne Cheyenne. 

j  3.  Colorado Denver Denver. 

I  4.  New  Mexico  T...  .  Santa  Yi Santa  F^. 

1.  Idaho  T. Boise  City Boist;  City. 

2.  Nevada Carson Virginia  City. 

3.  Utah  T. Salt  Lake  City. .  Salt  Lake  City. 

4.  Arizona  T. Prescott Tucson. 

r  L  Alaska  T. ...  Sitka    St.  Paul. 

J  2.  Washington  T. Olympia Walla  Walla. 

3.  Oregon Salem Portland. 

4.  California Sacramento San  Francisco. 


Mountains. — Where  situated  1 

Appalachian?  White?  Adirondack?  Catskill  ?  Alleghany?  Blue 
Ridge?  Cumberland?  Rocky?  Wahsatch?  Sierra  Nevada?  Cas- 
cade ?    Coast  range  ? 

Rivers. —  Where  does  it  rise  1  In  what  direction  does  it  flow  ?  Through 
what  states  ?     Into  what  body  of  ivater  t 

Atlantic  System. — St.  Lawrence  ?  Connecticut  ?  Hudson  ?  Del- 
aware? Susquehanna?  Potomac?  James?  Roanoke?  Cape  Fear? 
Santee?     Savannah?     Altamaha? 

Gulf  System. — Appalachicola  ?  Mobile  ?  Pearl  ?  Mississippi  ? 
Sabine?     Trinity?     Brazos?     Colorado?     Rio  Grande? 

Mississippi  System. — Yazoo?  Ohio?  Illinois?  Wisconsin?  Min- 
nesota ?     Des  Moines  ?     Missouri  ?     Arkansas  ?     Red  ? 

Ohio  System. — Tennessee?  Cumberland?  Kentucky?  Monon- 
gahela  ?     Alleghany  ?     Scioto  ?    Wabash  ? 

Missouri  System. — Yellowstone?     Platte?    Kansas? 

Pacific  System. — Columbia?  Willamette?  Snake?  Sacramento? 
San  Joaquin  ?     Colorado  ?     Gila  ? 

Lakes. —  Where  situated  ? 

St.  Lawrence  System. — Champlain  ?  Ontario  ?  Erie  ?  Huron  ? 
Michigan?     Superior? 


IiARGEST  CITIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.    (CENSUS  OF  1880.) 


Albany,  N.Y 90,903 

Allegheny,  Pa 78,681 

Atlanta,  Ga 34,398 

Baltimore,  Md 332,190 

Boston,  Mass 362,535 

Bridgeport,  Conn 29,148 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 566,689 

Buffalo,  N.Y 155,137 

Cambridge,  Mass 52,740 

Camden,  N.  J 41,658 

Charleston,  S.  C 49,999 

Chicago,  111 503,304 

Cincinnati,  0 255,708 

Cleveland,  0 160,142 

Columbus,  O 51,665 

Covington,  Ky 29,720 

Dayton,  O 38,677 

Denver,  Col 35,630 

Detroit,  Mich 116,342 


Elizabeth,  N.  J 

.      28,229 

Minneapolis,  Minn. . 

46,887 

Erie,  Pa 

.      27,730 

Mobile,  Ala 

31,205 

Evansville,  Ind 

.      29,280 

Nashville,  Tenn .... 

43,461 

Fall  River,  Mass 

.      49,006 

Newark,  N.J 

136,400 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

.      26,880 

New  Bedford,  Mass. 

26,875 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. . 

.      32,015 

New  Haven,  Conn.. 

62,882 

Harrisburg,  Pa 

.      30,762 

New  Orleans,  La. . . 

216,140 

Hartford,  Conn 

.      42,553 

New  York,  N.Y.... 

1,206,590 

Hoboken,N.J 

.      30,999 

Oakland,  Cal 

34,556 

Indianapolis,  Ind  .... 

.      75,074 

Omaha,  Neb 

30,518 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 

.    120,728 

Paterson,  N.J 

50,887 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

.      55,813 

Peoria,  111 

29,315 

Lawrence,  Mass 

.      39,178 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

846,984 

Louisville,  Ky 

.    123,645 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

156,381 

Lowell,  Mass 

.      59,485 
.      38,284 
.      32,630 

Portland,  Me 

Providence,  R.  I 

Quincy,  111 

33,810 

Lynn  Mass 

104,850 

Manchester,  N.  H.. .  . 

27,275 

Memphis,  Tenn 

.      33,593 

Reading,  Pa 

43,280 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

.    115,578 

Richmond,  Va 

63,803 

Rochester,  N.  Y 89,363 

Salem,  Mass 27,598 

San  Francisco,  Cal 233,956 

Savannah,  Ga 30,681 

Scranton,  Pa 45,850 

Springfield,  Mass 33,340 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 32,484 

St.  Louis,  Mo 350,522 

St.  Paul,  Minn 41,4  98 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 51,791 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 26,040 

Toledo,  O 50,143 

Trenton,  N.J 29,910 

Troy,  N.Y 56,747 

Utica,  N.Y 33,913 

Washington,  D.  C 147,307 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 31,266 

Wilmington,  Del 42,499 

Worcester,  Mass 58,295 


POLITICAL     UNITED     STATES. 


XXXIX. 

DESOKIPTION. 

1.  The  United  States  consists  of  thirty-eight  states 
and  ten  territories  united  under  a  general  government. 

2.  The  population  in  1880  was  more  than  50,000,000. 
Over  48,000,000  were  in  the  low  and  fertile  eastern  half 
of  the  country;  and,  of  the  remainder,  about  1,400,000 
were  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

8.  The  white  race  numbered  about  44,000,000. 

They  are  chiefly  the  descendants  of  emigrants  from  England,  Ire- 
land, and  Germany.  Negroes  and  mulattoes,  the  descendants 
of  slaves  brought  from  Africa,  numbered  nearly  6,000,000.  Of 
Indians  there  were  about  350,000 ;  they  are  nearly  all  in  the 
Western  Highland.     The  Chinese  numbered  about  150,000. 

4.  Ag:ricultnre  is  the  leading  industry.  Its  chief  seats  are 
the  Central  and  Atlantic  Plains  and  the  California  Basin. 

Among  the  principal  agricultural  products  are  the 
grains,  which,  in  the  order  of  their  latitude,  are  rice,  maize, 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley ;  maize  is  the  most  abundant, 
and  wheat  the  next.  The  other  chief  products  in  the 
same  order  are  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  hemp,  hay,  and  pota- 
toes ;  of  these  cotton  is  commercially  the  most  important. 

5.  Grazing  is  an  important  occupation  in  the  agri- 
cultural regions. 

The   prairie   and   maize   districts   of  the   Central   Plains   furnish 
lO 


large  quantities  of  live  stock,  beef,  pork,  and  wool.  The  chief 
supplies  of  butter  and  cheese  are  from  the  northern  half  of  the 
Eastern  Highland. 

6.  Hining  is  an  industry  of  great  and  growing  impor- 
tance. 

The  principal  mines  of  coal  and  iron  are  in  the  Eastern  Highland  ; 
those  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  mountains  of  the  Western  High- 
land ;  those  of  lead  in  Nevada,  Utah,  and  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi ;  and  those  of  copper  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior. 

Agriculture,  grazing,  and  mining  supply  most  of  the  raw  materials 
for  manufiictures. 

7.  llannracturing  industry  has  its  chief  seats  in  the 
states  north  of  the  Potomac  and  the  Ohio.  This  is  be- 
cause of  their  abundant  water-power,  fuel,  and  labor. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
leather,  tools  and  machinery,  flour,  lumber,  and  salt. 

Fishing  is  a  leading  interest  in  some  of  the  New  Eng- 
land States. 

8.  Commerce  is  of  two  kinds — domestic  and  foreign. 
The  domestic  commerce  of  the  United  States  is  the 
distribution  within  its  own  limits  of  imported  articles  and 
domestic  manufactures  in  exchange  for  agricultural,  graz- 
ing, mining,  and  forest  products. 

9.  Three  great  water  routes  to  the  sea  and  many  lines 
of  railway  are  the  principal  channels  of  this  commerce. 

The  first  water  route  is  by  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St 
Lawrence  to  the  ocean. 


34 


POLITICAL  UNITED   STATES:    DESCRIPTION. 


The  second  water  route  is  by  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  the  Hudson  River  to  New  York.  This  is  the 
principal  commercial  route  of  the  continent. 

The  port  of  New  York  is  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  advantages 
of  its  position  and  for  its  excellent  harbor.  It  is  the  chief  natu- 
ral doorway  to  the  populous  eastern  half  of  the  United  States. 
It  lies  at  the  outlet  of  a  narrow  valley  which  is  the  only  deep 
cleft  and  water-way  entirely  crossing  the  Appalachian  Highland. 
By  the  broad  and  deep  Hudson  and  the  canal  through  the  Mo- 
hawk Valley  it  has  easy  access  to  the  group  of  inland  seas 
known  as  the  Great  Lakes.  By  the  Chaniplain  and  Hudson 
Canal  it  connects  with  the  Lower  St.  Lawrence. 
Through  this  valley  the  tide  of  emigration  from  Europe  and  the 
Atlantic  States  has  rolled  for  the  last  forty  years,  spreading  out 
over  the  fertile  plains  south  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  changing 
a  wilderness  into  the  home  of  industrious  millions.  As  one  of 
the  results  of  their  industry,  the  commerce  of  this  region  al- 
ready greatly  exceeds  in  value  the  entire  foreign  commerce  of 
the  nation. 

The  third  water  route  is  by  the  Mississippi  and  its 
branches  to  New  Orleans.  By  this  route  the  flour,  pork, 
beef,  coal,  and  machinery  of  the  North  find  a  market  in 
the  Cotton  States  and  the  West  Indies. 

All  these  water  routes  radiate  from  or  converge  towards  the  low 
plains  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  and  its  branches,  so  rich  in 
grains  and  live  stock. 


CANAL  AND  LOCKS. 


10.  The  railway  routes  are  much  more  numerous  and 
complicated. 

The  principal  lake-ports,  sea-ports,  and  other  cities  are  connected 
by  railroads.  These  railroads  and  their  branches  cover  the  low 
half  of  the  country,  and  especially  its  northern  part,  like  a  net- 
work of  iron.  The  navigation  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  is  prevented  for  several  months  of  each  year  by  ice : 
this  gives  still  greater  importance  to  the  railway  system.  One 
great  railroad  across  the  Western  Highland  already  unites  the 
commercial  system  of  the  East  with  that  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
others  are  in  process  of  construction. 

Thousands  of  vessels  ply  between  the  principal  ports,  and  thus 
complete  the  means  for  the  transportation  of  goods,  passengers, 
and  mails.  This  coasting  trade  is  much  greater  than  the  entire 
foreign  commerce. 


LIGHT-HOUSE   AND    PILOT-BOATS. 


At  the  entrance  of  harbors,  on  capes,  and  at  dangerous  shoals  of 
the  ocean  and  the  lakes,  the  General  Government  maintains 
light-houses  to  guide  and  warn  vessels  at  night. 

Thousands  of  miles  of  telegraph  wires  convey  the  information  by 
which  this  great  commercial  system  is  regulated,  and  the  news- 
papers promptly  report  the  state  of  distant  markets. 

Domestic  commerce  is  the  chief  means  by  which  the  different  parts 
of  the  United  States  are  firmly  and  peaceably  united  to  each 
other  through  mutual  interests  and  mutual  dependence. 

It  is  itself  dependent  upon  the  physical  geography  of  the  countiy. 

11.  Foreign  commerce  is  the  exchange  of  commodi- 
ties between  different  countries.  The  foreign  commerce 
of  the  United  States  is  chiefly  with  England,  Germany, 
and  France  in  Europe ;  with  Canada,  the  West  Indies, 
and  Brazil  in  America;  and  with  China  and  Japan  in  Asia. 

12.  The  principal  exports  are  cotton,  breadstuffs, 
provisions,  petroleum,  gold,  and  tobacco.  The  greater  part, 
"especially  of  the  cotton,  goes  to  England.  South  America 
and  the  West  Indies  take  large  amounts  of  provisions, 
flour,  lumber,  and  other  manufactures. 

13.  The  leading  imports,  and  the  principal  countries 
from  which  they  come,  are  dry  goods  from  England  and 
France,  sugar  from  the  West  Indies,  coffee  from  Brazil, 
hides  from  South  America,  tea  from  China  and  Japan,  and 
iron  and  tin  from  England. 

The  greater  part  of  the  foreign  commerce  centres  in  the  sea-ports 
of  the  northern  half  of  the  Atlantic  coast ;  these  have  the  best 
harbors.  At  least  two  thirds  of  all  the  imports  and  nearly  one 
half  of  all  the  exports  of  the  United  States  pass  through  the  port 
of  New  York. 

Other  leading  sea-ports  are  Boston,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  New 
Orleans,  and  San  Francisco. 

This  foreign  commerce  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  large 
steam  vessels.  It  is  in  large  part  directed  and  controlled  by 
means  of  several  submarine  telegraph  lines,  the  cables  lying 
upon  the  bed  of  the  ocean.  One  line  is  to  England  by  way  of 
Newfoundland  and  Ireland  ;  another  is  to  France  by  way  of 
Massachusetts  and  the  island  of  St.  Pierre,  near  Newfoundland. 

Questions  (I.)— 1.  Of  what  does  the  United  States  consist  ?— 3.  What  was  the  poj™- 
lation  in  1 870?  How  distributed  ?— 3.  How  many  belonged  to  tlie  white  race  ?— 4.  What 
is  the  leading  industry?  Where  are  its  chief  seats  ?  Name  the  grains  in  the  order  of 
their  latitude.     Which  is  the  most  abundant  ?     Which  next  ?     Name  the  other  chief 


GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


35 


products  in  the  same  order.  Which  is  the  most  import.int? — 5.  What  is  said  of  graz- 
ing?—  6.  What  of  mining? — 7.  Where  are  the  chief  seats  of  manufacturing  industry? 
Why?  Name  the  principal  manufactures.  Where  is  fishing  a  leading  interest? — 
8.  How  many  kinds  of  commerce?  What  is  domestic  commerce? — 9.  What  are  its 
principal  channels?  Which  is  the  first  water  route?  The  second?  What  is  said  of 
it?  The  third?  What  is  said  of  it? — 10.  What  is  said  of  the  railway  routes? — 11. 
What  is  foreign  commerce  ?  With  what  countries  in  Europe  is  the  greater  part  of  the 
foreign  commerce  ?  With  what  countries  in  America  ?  In  Asia  ? — 13.  Name  the  prin- 
cipal exports.  What  share  is  taken  by  England?  By  South  America  and  the  West 
Indies.' — 13.  What  are  the  chief  imports ?     From  what  countries? 

(11.) — 3.  From  whom  are  the  white  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  descended? 
How  many  negroes?  From  whom  descended?  How  many  Indians?  Where  are 
they?  How  many  Chinese? — 5.  Where  are  the  chief  supplies  of  animal  food  and  of 
wool  obtained?  Of  butter  and  cheese? — 6.  Where  arc  the  principal  coal  and  iron 
mines  ?  Of  gold  .md  silver  ?  Of  lead  ?  Of  copper  ?  What  industries  supply  the  raw 
materials  for  manufactures? — 9.  What  is  said  of  New  York?  Of  the  valleys  of  the 
Hudson  and  Mohawk  ?  Of  the  Champlain  and  Hudson  Can.il  ?  Of  emigration  ? 
What  is  one  of  the  results?  Froin  what  part  of  the  country  do  the  great  water  routes 
radiate? — 10.  What  is  said  of  the  raihoads?  Why  is  the  railroad  system  important? 
What  is  said  of  the  railroads  to  the  Pacific?  Of  the  co,isting  trade?  How  does  it 
compare  with  the  foreign  commerce?  What  is  said  of  light-houses?  Of  telegraphs 
and  newspapers?  What  is  said  of  domestic  commerce?  Upon  what  is  it  dependent? 
— 13.  Where  does  the  greater  part  of  the  foreign  commerce  centre?  Why?  What 
part  of  the  imports  are  received  at  New  York  ?  Of  the  exports  ?  Name  other  leading 
ports.  How  is  the  foreign  commerce  chiefly  carried  on  ?  How  is  it  directed  and 
controlled?     Where  are  the  ocean  cables? 


XL. 

GOVERNMENT. 


THn    CAPITOL   AT   WASHINGTON. 


1.  The  General  Government  of  the  United  States 
and  the  several  state  governments  are  all  republican,  or 
representative,  in  form. 

The  United  States  is  the  most  extensive  and  powerful 
republic  in  the  world. 

A  republican  government  is  one  under  which  those  who  make  the 
laws  and  those  who  execute  them  are  elected  for  limited  periods 
by  the  people. 

A  state  is  a  division  of  the  United  States,  controlling  its  own 
internal  affairs,  but  united  with  the  other  states  under  the  Gen- 
eral Government. 

A  territory  is  a  portion  of  the  country  not  yet  admitted  as  a  state, 
because  it  has  not  sufficient  population. 

2.  The  General  Government  has  three  distinct  depart- 
ments— the  legislative,  the  executive,  and  the  judicial. 

3.  The  legislative  department,  or  Congress,  consists  of 
two  distinct  bodies — the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. 


A  law  is  made  by  the  consent  of  both  Houses  and  the  approval  of 
the  President  of  the  United  States.  If  the  President  returns  a 
bill  without  his  approval,  he  is  said  to  veto  it ;  it  may  afterwards 
become  a  law  if  two  thirds  of  each  House  again  approve  it. 

4.  The  Senate  consists  of  two  members  from  each 

state. 

The  senators  are  chosen  by  the  State  Legislatures,  and  hold  office 
for  six  years.  'J'heir  present  number  is  V6.  The  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States  is  the  presiding  officer. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  consists  of  mem- 
bers chosen  directly  by  the  people  of  the  several  states. 

They  are  the  only  officers  of  the  General  Government  so  chosen. 
They  hold  office  for  two  years.  There  are  at  the  present  time 
293  members,  each  state  being  entitled  to  one  for  every  135,000 
of  its  inhabitants.  The  representatives  elect  one  of  their  own 
number  as  presiding  officer  or  Speaker.  Each  organized  territory 
has  a  delegate  in  this  House  ;  he  may  take  part  in  the  discussion 
of  all  matters  relating  to  his  territory,  but  has  no  vote. 

6.  The  President  of  the  United  States  is  the  chief 

executive  ofificer. 

The  President  and  the  Vice-President  are  chosen  by  electors.  The 
people  of  each  state  choose  as  many  of  these  electors  as  there 
are  members  of  Congress  from  that  state.  The  President  ami 
the  Vice-President  hold  office  for  four  years.  The  President  is 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Army  and  the  Navy.  By  and  wiih 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  he  appoints  the  judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court  and  certain  other  civil  and  military  officers, 
concludes  peace,  and  makes  treaties  with  other  nations. 

7.  The  Supreme  Court,  or  judicial  department,  con- 
sists of  a  Chief-Justice  and  eight  Associate  Judges. 

8.  The  complete  statement  of  this  plan  or  arrangement 
of  the  government  is  called  the  Constitution. 

9.  Each  state  has  a  complete  political  organization  or 
constitution,  similar  in  most  respects  to  that  of  the  United 
States.  It  has  a  Governor  elected  directly  by  the  people, 
a  Legislature  in  two  departments,  and  a  Supreme  Court 

Neither  the  General  Government  nor  any  state  government  can  make 
a  law  which  is  contrary  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

An  organized  territory  has  a  government  similar  to  that  of  a  state, 
except  that  the  governor  and  the  judges  are  appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  form  of  the  government  of  the  United  States? 
Of  the  several  state  governments  ?  How  does  the  United  States  compare  with  other 
republics? — 3.  How  many  and  what  departments  has  it.' — 3.  Of  what  does  the  legisla- 
tive department  consist  ?  What  are  they  called  ? — i.  Of  what  does  the  Senate  consist  ? 
— 5.  How  are  the  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  chosen? — ti.  Who  is  the 
chief  executive  officer.' — 7.  Of  what  does  the  Supreme  Court  consist.' — 8.  What  is 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.' — 9.  What  is  said  of  the  state  governments? 

(II.) — 1.  Wh,it  is  a  republican  government  ?  What  is  a  state  ?  What  is  a  terri- 
tory.'— 3.  How  are  laws  made?  When  is  a  bill  said  to  be  vetoed?  How  may  it  af- 
terwards become  a  law.' — t.  How  are  the  senators  chosen?  For  how  long  a  time.' 
What  is  their  j)resent  number?  Who  is  President  of  the  Senate  ?— 5.  In  what  par- 
ticular is  the  election  of  members  of  the  House  peculiar?  How  long  do  they  hold 
office?  How  many  members  are  there  at  the  present  time?  What  is  the  basis  of 
representation?  Who  is  the  Speaker?  What  is  said  of  territorial  delegates? — C.  Ry 
whom  are  the  President  and  the  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  chosen  >  By 
whom  are  the  electors  chosen  ?  How  many  are  there  ?  How  long  do  the  President 
and  the  Vice-President  hold  office  ?  Who  is  the  head  of  the  Army  and  Navy  ?  What 
other  powers  and  duties  has  he .' — 9.  What  laws  can  not  be  made  t  What  can  you  say 
of  territorial  governments  ? 


l-fiTigitudfi      "West         71       from      Greenwich.        70 


tCojiyri^Ai,  IBIS.  6tf  Hawtr  A  fi'<jlk«r»,\ 


NORTH   ATLANTIC   STATES:   QUESTIONS   ON  THE  MAP.— REVIEW  EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 


37 


XLI. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

General. — Name  the  North  Atlantic  States.  Which  is  the  largest  ? 
Which  is  the  smallest  ?  Which  has  no  sea-coast  ?  Which  has  the  most 
broken  coast  ?  What  mountain  system  covers  a  large  part  of  New  Eng- 
land ?  Which  state  has  no  mountains?  In  what  general  direction  do 
the  rivers  flow?  Which  is  the  largest  river?  What  states  does  it  sepa- 
rate? What  states  does  it  cross?  Which  state  has  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  lakes? 

Maine. — What  river  forms  part  of  the  northern  boundary  of  Maine  ? 
Of  the  eastern?  Of  what  lakes  is  it -the  outlet?  Name  three  other 
principal  rivers.  From  what  lake  does  the  Kennebec  flow  ?  What  bays 
on  the  southern  coast  ?  What  cape  ?  What  island  ?  What  city  on 
Casco  Bay  ?  On  the  Saco  River  ?  On  the  Androscoggin  ?  On  the 
Kennebec  ?    On  the  Penobscot  ?     Which  is  the  capital  ? 

New  Hampshire.  —  What  mountains  in  the  northern  part  of  New 
Hampshire  ?  What  celebrated  peak  ?  What  lake  near  the  centre  of 
the  state?  Which  is  the  principal  river  in  the  state?  In  what  state  is 
the  mouth  of  the  Merrimac?  What  three  cities  in  New  Hampshire  are 
on  the  Merrimac?  Which  is  the  capital  ?  What  sea-port  in  the  south- 
east ?     At  the  mouth  of  what  river  ?    What  city  near  the  Piscataqua  ? 

Vermont. — What  parallel  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  Vermont  ? 
What  lakes  does  it  cross?  Which  of  these  forms  part  of  the  western 
boundary  ?  In  what  direction  do  its  waters  flow  ?  Through  what 
branch  of  the  St.  Lawrence  ?  What  mountains  in  this  state  ?  Into 
what  other  states  do  they  extend  ?  Name  the  two  highest  peaks  in 
Vermont.  What  town  is  the  capital  ?  What  city  on  Lake  Champlain  ? 
What  town  north  of  Burlington  ?     What  town  southwest  of  Montpelier? 

Massachusetts. — What  two  islands  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
state  ?  What  bay  east  ?  What  two  bays  southeast  ?  What  three  capes 
on  the  coast?  What  peak  in  the  southwest?  In  the  northwest ?  What 
two  near  Connecticut  River  ?  What  river  enters  the  state  from  New- 
Hampshire  ?  What  cities  on  the  Merrimac  ?  Which  of  these  is  a 
sea-port  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  city  northwest  of  Boston  ? 
What  two  cities  northeast  ?  What  town  on  Cape  Cod  Bay  ?  What 
city  on  Buzzards  Bay  ?  What  city  northwest  of  New  Bedford  ?  What 
city  on  the  Connecticut?     Midway  between  Springfield  and  Boston? 

Rhode  Island. — Name  the  two  capitals  of  Rhode  Island.  On  what 
island  is  Newport  ?  (R/wde.)  On  what  bay  ?  What  two  towns  north 
of  Providence  ?     What  cape  on  the  coast  ? 

Connecticut. — What  water  south  of  Connecticut  ?  What  three  rivers 
enter  it  from  this  state?    What  city  is  the  capital?    What  two  cities 


on  the  Thames?    What  two  on  or  near  Long  Island  Sound  ?    What  city 
northwest  of  New  Haven  ?    What  three  cities  near  the  centre  of  the  state? 

Voyages  and  Travels. — What  cities,  capes,  rivers,  and  islands  would 
you  pass  in  a  coasting  voyage  from  Bridgeport  to  Providence  ?  From 
Providence  to  Boston  ?  Boston  to  the  St.  Croix  River?  Through  what 
cities  by  railroad  from  Bridgeport  to  Boston  by  way  of  Springfield  ?  By 
way  of  Providence  ?  Boston  to  Bangor  ?  Boston  to  St.  Albans  by  way 
of  Nashua  ? 


XLII. 

EEVIEW  EXEEOISES. 


States. — JIow  bounded?     IV/iat  is  the  capital?     The  largest  cityt 


States. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population 
in  ISSO. 

States. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population 
in  1S80. 

32,000 

9,300 

10,200 

648,945 
347,784 
332,286 

Massachusetts. . 
Rhode  Island. . . 
Connecticut 

7,800 
1,300 
4,700 

1,783,086 
276,. WO 
6^2,683 

New  Hampshire. . 

Cities  and  Towns. — In  what  p.art  of  the  state?     How  situated? 
Augusta  ?     Portland  ?     Lewiston  ?     Bangor  ?     Biddeford  ? 
Concord  ?     Manchester  ?     Nashua  ?     Dover  ?     Portsmouth  ? 
Montpelier?     Rutland?     Burlington?     St.  Albans  ? 
Boston?     Lowell?    Worcester?     Cambridge?     Fall  River?     Law- 
rence ?     Lynn  ?     Springfield  ?     Salem  ?     New  Bedford  ?     Plymouth  ? 
Providence  ?     Newport  ?     Pawtucket  ?     Woonsocket  ? 
Hartford?     New  Haven?     Bridgeport?     Norwich?    Waterbury? 

Islands. —  Where  situated? 

Nantucket?      Marthas  Vineyard  ?     Mount  Desert? 

Capes. — From  what  coast  does  it  project? 
Elizabeth  ?     Ann  ?     Cod  ?     Monomoy  ?     Judith  ? 

Mountains. —  Where  are  they  ? 

Green?    White?     Mount  Washington  ?     Mount  Mansfield  ?     Mount 
Everett  ?     Mount  Tom  ?     Mount  Holyoke  ? 

Bays,  etc. —  Where  is  it  ? 

Passamaquoddy  ?    Massachusetts  ?    Cape  Cod  ?    Buzzards  ?    Narra- 
gansett  ?     Long  Island  Sound  ?     Penobscot  ?     Casco  ? 

Rivers. —  Where  docs  it  rise  ?    In  what  direction  does  it  flow  ?    Through 
what  states  ?     Into  what  body  of  water  ? 

St.  John  ?     St.  Croix  ?      Penobscot  ?     Kennebec  ? 
Merrimac  ?     Connecticut  ?     Thames  ?     Housatonic  ? 

Lakes. —  Where  situated  ?     What  outlet  ? 

Moosehead?     Winnipiseogee?     Champlain?     Grand? 


Androscoggin  ? 


NORTH     ATLANTIC     STATES. 


XLIII. 

NOKTH  ATLANTIC  or  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES : 
DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Position  and  area. — The  New  England  States 
extend  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  Lake  Champlain  and 
the  valley  of  the  Hudson.  Their  area  is  about  one  third 
of  that  of  California. 

Maine  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  five  other  states  taken  together. 

2.  Surface. — The  surface  is  generally  rough,  being 


broken  by  the  mountains  and  numerous  hills  of  this  part 
of  the  Eastern  Highland, 

There  are  two  principal  ridges  forming  the  sides  of  the  long  val- 
ley of  the  Connecticut  River.  The  Green  Mountains,  near  the 
western  border,  are  the  only  continuous  range.  The  irregular 
eastern  ridge  contains  the  White  Mountains,  the  highest  in  New 
England. 

The  Atlantic  shores  are  low  in  the  south,  and  bold  and  rugged  in 
the  east.     They  furnish  many  good  harbors. 

3.  Lakes  and  rivers. — The  lakes  and  rivers  are  very 
numerous.     Some  of  the  lakes  are  celebrated  for  their 


38 


NEW  ENGLAND   OR   NORTH   ATLANTIC    STATES:   DESCRIPTION. 


beauty.  The  frequent  rapids  and  falls  render  the  rivers 
unnavigable  beyond  a  short  distance,  but  furnish  the  ex- 
tensive water-power  which  has  made  New  England  one  of 
the  greatest  manufacturing  districts  in  the  United  States, 

4.  Climate  and  soil. — The  winters  are  long  and  se- 
vere ;  the  summers  are  short,  but  hot. 

The  soil  is  stony,  and  not  very  fertile,  except  in  the 
valleys. 

5.  A^icnltnre. — The  agricultural  products  are  not 
sufficient  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  population. 

The  greater  part  of  the  breadstuffs  and  provisions  used  by  the 
people  of  this  section  is  brought  from  the  Great  Central  Plain. 
Large  quantities  of  live  stock  and  wool  are  produced. 

6.  Occupations.  —  Manufactures  and  commerce  are 
the  leading  pursuits. 

The  manufactures  comprise  fabrics  of  cotton,  wool,  leather,  metal, 

and  wood,  together  with  machinery,  tools,  and  other  articles  in 

great  variety. 
The  fire-arms,  cutlery,  sewing-machines,  and  boots  and  shoes  of 

New  England  find  a  market  in  a  large  part  of  the  civilized  world. 

The  forests  of  hemlock  and  pine,  especially  in  the  southeast  of 

Maine,  furnish  valuable  lumber. 

7.  Commerce. — The  many  excellent  harbors,  the  com- 
parative nearness  to  Europe,  and  the  abundance  of  ship- 
timber  have  contributed  to  establish  an  extensive  foreign 
commerce. 

The  domestic  commerce  consists  in  the  exchange  of 
lumber,  marble,  granite,  ice,  and  manufactured  articles  for 
coal,  breadstuffs,  provisions,  and  cotton,  iron,  wool,  and 
other  raw  materials.  For  this  purpose  Southern  New 
England  possesses  more  coasting  vessels  and  more  miles 
of  railroad  than  any  other  equal  area  in  the  United 
States. 

8.  People. — The  people  of  New  England  are  chiefly  of 


English  descent.     They  are  distinguished  for  industry  and 
intelligence,  and  for  the  general  diffusion  of  education. 

The  numerous  colleges,  high-schools,  normal  and  common  schools 
are  unsurpassed  in  excellence  by  any  in  the  Union. 

Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island  are  the  most  dense- 
ly peopled  portion  of  the  United  States. 


SHIP-BUILDING. 


9.  Maine. — Maine, "  the 

Pine-tree  State,"  is  noted 

for   its    ship-building,  for 

its   trade    in   lumber  and 

ice,  and  for  its   excellent 

harbors. 

It  has  more  good  harbors  than  all  the  coast  from  the  Chesapeake 
Bay  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

Portland,  the  largest  city,  is  at  the  termination  of  the 
Grand  Trunk  Railway  of  Canada,  and  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
cellent harbor  and  its  extensive  commerce.  -  It  is  the  prin- 
cipal eastern  gateway  to  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  in  the 
winter.  Lewiston  is  largely  engaged  in  manufacturing. 
Bangor  is  a  great  lumber  depot.     Augusta  is  the  capital. 

10.  IVew  Hampshire. — New  Hampshire, "the  Granite 
State,"  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  lakes  and  for 
the  grand  scenery  of  its  mountains. 

These  mountains  and  lakes  are  much  visited  by  tourists  in  sum- 
mer. Mount  Washington,  the  highest  peak  of  the  White  Mount- 
ains, is  6288  feet  high ;  the  view  from  its  summit  is  more  exten- 
sive than  any  other  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Of  the  lakes,  Win- 
nipiseogee,  near  the  centre  of  the  state,  is  the  most  beautiful. 

Concord,  the  capital,  is  famous  for  its  manufacture  of 
coaches  and  wagons.  Manchester,  the  largest  city,  and 
Nashua  are  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  wool- 
len goods. 

The  Merrimac  River  is  said  to  be  more  extensively  used  for  manu- 
facturing purposes  than  any  other  river  in  the  world. 


NEW    ENGLAND    STATES  :  VERMONT,  MASSACHUSETTS,  RHODE   ISLAND,  CONNECTICUT. 


11.  Vermont. — Vermont,  "  the  Green  Mountain  State," 
is  chiefly  a  grazing  country.  It  is  also  noted  for  its  rich 
quarries  of  marble,  soapstone,  and  slate. 

Rutland  is  the  largest  town.  Burlington,  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  is  a  great  lumber  market.    Montpelier  is  the  capital. 

12.  ]9Ia!«sachiisetts. — Massachusetts,  "  the  Bay  State," 
is  the  third  in  the  Union  in  the  value  of  its  manufactures ; 
it  is  also  noted  for  its  extensive  fisheries. 

In  1870  it  had  nearly  twice  as  many  inhabitants  as  Texas,  which 
is  more  than  thirty  times  as  large. 

Boston,  the  capital,  situated  at  the  head  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay,  is  the  largest  city  in  New  England.  In  foreign 
commerce  it  ranks  next  after  New  York  and  New  Orleans. 
It  is  the  centre  of  a  railway  system  which  includes  the  Bos- 
ton and  Albany  Railroad  and  many  other  important  lines. 

In  the  suburbs  are  many  beautiful  towns,  large  and  small,  connect- 
ed with  the  city  by  railroads:  such  towns  may  be  called  resi- 
dential towns,  as  they  contain  the  homes  of  many  thousands  of 
the  mercantile  population  of  the  city. 

It  has  sometimes  been  called  the  "  American  Athens,"  on  account 
of  the  excellence  of  its  literary  institutions. 

Lowell,  Lawrence,  and  Fall  River,  famous  for  cotton 
manufactures ;  Worcester,  a  great  railroad  and  manu- 
facturing centre ;  Cambridge,  the  seat  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, the  oldest  and  richest  in  America ;  Lynn,  famous 
for  its  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  ;  New  Bedford, 
the  first  sea-port  in  the  world  in  the  extent  of  its  whale 
fisheries ;  and  Springfield,  containing  the  greatest  arsenal 
in  the  United  States,  are  among  its  chief  cities. 


13.  Rhode  Island. — Rhode  Island,  the  smallest  state 
in  the  Union,  is  extensively  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  cotton,  wool,  iron,  and  jewelry. 

This  state  contains  a  limited  supply  of  anthracite  coal. 


FISHING-SMACKS. 


Plymouth  is  celebrated  as  the  landing-place  of  the  Pilgrims,  who 

formed  a  settlement  there  in  1620. 
Lexington  and  Concord  are  famous  for  the  opening  engagements 

of  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  April  19, 1775. 
II 


Providence,  the  second  city  in  New  England,  is  one  of 
the  capitals.  Newport,  the  other  capital,  is  famous  as  a 
summer  resort.  Pawtucket  and  Woonsocket  are  impor- 
tant manufacturing  towns. 

14.  Connecticut. — Connecticut  is  noted  for  a  greater 
variety  of  manufactures  than  any  other  state,  and  for  its 
extensive  coasting  trade. 

New  Haven,  the  seat  of  Yale  College,  is  the  largest  city. 
Hartford,  a;t  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Connecticut,  is 
the  capital. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  position  of  the  New  England  States  ?  How  do 
New  England  and  California  compare  in  size? — 2.  What  is  the  character  of  the  sur- 
face >  Why  ? — 3.  What  is  said  of  the  number  of  tlie  lakes  and  rivers  ?  For  what  are 
some  of  the  lakes  celebrated  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  the  falls  and  rapids  of  the  rivers  ? 
Why  are  they  valuable? — 4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  climate?  Of  the  soil? — 
5.  What  is  said  of  the  amount  of  agricultural  products  ? — 6.  What  are  the  leading 
pursuits  ? — 7.  What  is  said  of  the  foreign  commerce  ?  Of  domestic  commerce  ?  Of 
the  number  of  coasting  vessels?  Of  railroads? — 8.  Of  what  descent  are  the  people 
of  New  England  ?  For  what  are  they  distinguished  ? — 9.  For  what  is  Maine  noted  ? 
Portland?  Uf  what  is  it  the  principal  gateway?  What  is  said  of  Lewiston?  Bangor? 
Augusta? — 10.  New  Hampshire?  Concord?  Manchester  and  Nashua? — 11.  Ver- 
mont? Rutland?  Burlington?  Montpelier?  — 12.  Massachusetts?  Which  is  the 
largest  city  in  New  England?  What  is  its  rank  in  foreign  commerce?  Of  what  is  it 
the  centre  ?  Name  one  of  the  most  important  lines  of  railroad.  Name  some  of  the 
other  chief  cities.  For  what  is  Lowell  noted  ?  Lawrence  ?  Fall  River  ?  Worcester  ? 
Cambridge?  Lynn?  New  Bedford?  Springfield? — 13.  Rhode  Island ?  Providence? 
Newport?    Pawtucket  and  Woonsocket? — U.Connecticut?    New  Haven?    Hartford? 

(II.) — 1.  What  is  the  relative  size  of  Maine  ? — 2.  What  form  the  sides  of  the  Con- 
necticut V.alley?  Which  is  the  only  continuous  range?  What  is  said  of  the  eastern 
ridge?  What  is  the  character  of  the  surface  near  the  Atlantic? — 5.  Where  are  the 
breadstuffs  and  provisions  obtained  ?  Name  the  chief  grazing  products. — 6.  Name 
some  of  the  principal  manufactures  of  New  England.  The  forest  product. — 8.  What  is 
said  of  the  colleges  and  schools?  What  is  said  of  the  population  of  the  three  smaller 
states? — 9.  What  is  said  of  the  harbors  of  Maine? — 10.  What  is  said  of  the  mountains 
and  lakes?  Of  Mount  Washington?  Of  Lake  Winnipiseogee  ?  Of  the  Merrimac 
River? — 12.  How  does  Massachusetts  compare  with  Texas  in  area  and  population? 
What  is  said  of  the  suburbs  of  Boston  ?  Wh.it  may  these  be  called?  What  is  Boston 
sometimes  called  ?  For  what  is  Plymouth  noted  ?  Lexington  and  Concord  ? — 13.  What 
mineral  in  Rhode  Island? 


X/ongit»idfl     West    77    from.    Greeawlch. 


LaugSxfluch. 


Mini  a 


MIDDLE 
ATLANTIC   STATES. 


Scale  of  Miles. 


X.ongittule    "West    2     from    "Washington. 


Cape  Jlliiy  > '' 


^  VA 


a    »  i   <  <    ■  IJ» 


ICop^ij/M,  161S,  ^y  llarptr  Je  UrUktrt,} 


MIDDLE   ATLANTIC    STATES:   QUESTIONS    ON   THE   MAP.— REVIEW  EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 


41 


XLIV. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

General. — Name  the  states  of  this  group.  Which  two  are  the 
largest?  Which  is  the  smallest?  What  mountain  system  covers  a 
large  part  of  the  group  ?  Which  state  has  the  most  mountains  ? 
Which  has  none  ?     Which  state  has  many  hikes  ? 

New  York. — What  two  islands  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  state? 
What  strait  between  them?  What  mountains  in  the  north?  In  the 
southeast?  In  the  east?  What  river  flows  into  New  York  Bay? 
Which  is  its  most  important  branch?  What  two  rivers  partly  separate 
New  York  from  Canada?  What  two  lakes?  Which  way  does  the  water 
of  Niagara  River  flow?  What  falls  in  that  river?  What  river  drains  a 
large  number  of  small  lakes?  \Vhat  river  west  of  the  Oswego?  What 
river  flows  from  this  state  into  Delaware  Bay?  Into  Chesapeake  Bay? 
Into  the  Ohio  River?  What  lake  forms  a  part  of  the  northeastern 
boundary?  What  lake  south  of  Lake  Champlain?  What  city  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson?  On  Long  Island?  Name  the  chief  cities  on 
the  Hudson.  Which  is  the  capital  ?  What  city  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Oswego?  Of  the  Mohawk?  On  the  Genesee?  On  Lake  Erie?  Near 
the  Pennsylvania  line?  What  two  cities  between  Elmira  and  Oswego? 
What  city  east  of  Syracuse  ?    What  canal  extends  from  Albany  to  Buffalo  ? 

New  Jersey. — What  cape  at  the  southern  point  of  New  Jersey?  At 
the  northeast  point?  What  mountains  in  the  northwest?  What  city  is 
the  capital?  On  what  river?  What  city  on  the  Delaware  opposite 
Philadelphia?     What  six  cities  in  the  northeast? 

Pennsylvania. — What  parallel  on  the  north  of  Pennsylvania?  What 
river  forms  the  eastern  boundary?  Name  its  principal  branches.  Name 
the  chief  mountain  ranges  of  the  state.  What  river  Crosse's  the  state? 
Name  its  two  chief  branches.  What  river  in  the  western  part?  What 
two  rivers  form  the  Ohio  ?  What  large  city  on  the  Delaware  ?  On  the 
Schuylkill?  On  the  Lehigh?  What  two  on  the  Susquehanna  ?  Which 
is  the  capital?  What  city  near  Wilkesbarre?  On  the  west  branch? 
Between  Harrisburg  and  Philadelphia?  What  two  cities  at  the  head 
of  the  Ohio?    What  one  on  Lake  Erie  ? 

Delaware. — What  river  flows  into  Delaware  Bay?  What  cape  op- 
posite Cape  May  ?  What  city  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state.?  What 
city  is  the  capital  ? 

Maryland. — What  river  separates  Maryland  from  Virginia?  What 
federal  district  oh  that  river?  What  mountains  in  the  state?  In  what 
part  ?  What  great  bay  divides  the  state  into  two  parts  ?  What  two  cities 
on  or  near  the  bay?  Which  is  the  capital?  What  city  west  of  Balti- 
more?    Near  the  western  border? 

District  of  Columbia.— What  large  city  in  the  District  of  Columbia? 
What  is  Washington?     What  suburb  has  it? 


Voyages  and  Travels.— In  sailing  from  Troy  to  Brooklyn,  what  towns 
would  you  pass  ?  What  cities,  capes,  bays,  etc.,  from  Jersey  City  to  Phil- 
adelphia? Philadelphia  to  Baltimore?  What  by  railroad  from  New 
York  to  Washington  by  way  of  Trenton  ?  Philadelphia  to  Erie  ?  Phila- 
delphia to  Pittsburgh?     Pittsburgh  to  Annapolis? 


XLV. 

EEVIEW  EXERCISES. 

States. — How  bounded f     What  is  the  capital?     The  largest  city  i 


States. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population 
in  ISSO. 

States. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population 
in  l.SSO. 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania. . . 

47,000 

8,300 

40,000 

.5,083,810 
1,130,892 
4,282,780 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Dist.  of  Columbia. 

2,100 

11,000 

04 

]  40,0.54 
934,032 

177,088 

Cities  and  Towns.— 7«  what  part  of  the  state  1     How  situated? 

Albany  ?  New  York  ?  Brooklyn  ?  Buffalo  ?  Rochester  ?  Troy  ? 
Syracuse?     Utica  ?     Auburn?     Oswego?     Cohoes  ? 

Trenton  ?  Newark  ?  Jersey  City  ?  Paterson  ?  Camden  ?  Hobo- 
ken  ?     Elizabeth  ? 

Harrisburg?  Philadelphia?  Pittsburgh?  Allegheny?  Scranton? 
Reading  ?     Erie  ?     Lancaster  ? 

Dover  ?    Wilmington  ? 

Annapolis?     Baltimore?     Frederick?     Cumberland? 

Washington  ?    Georgetown  ? 

Islands. —  Where  situated? 
Long?     Staten? 

Capes. — From  what  coast  does  it  project  f 
Sandy  Hook  ?     May  ?     Henlopen  ? 

Mountains.—  Where  are  they  ? 

Adirondack?  Catskill?  Highlands?  Blue?  Alleghany?  Laurel 
Mountain?     Chestnut?     South? 

Bays. —  Where  is  it? 

New  York  ?     Delaware  ?     Chesapeake  ?     Long  Island  Sound  ? 

Rivers.  —  Where  does  it  rise  ?  In  what  direction  does  it  flow  ? 
Through  what  states  ?    Into  what  body  of  water  ? 

Hudson?  Mohawk?  Delaware?  Schuylkill?  Susquehanna?  Al- 
leghany?    Potomac?     Genesee?     Monongahela?     Oswego? 

Lakes. —  Where  situated  ?     What  outlet  ? 

George?     Oneida?    Cayuga?     Seneca?     Chautauqua.' 


MIDDLE     ATLANTIC     STATES. 


XL  VI. 

MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES:  DESOEIPTION. 

;-l,  "'Area.— The  area  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  is 
aboiit  twice  that  of  New  England,  or  half  that  of  Texas. 

2.  Surface.— The  greater  part  of  this  group,  being 
situated  within  the  mountain  region  of  the  Eastern 
Highland,  has  a  rough  surface.  ,  The  principal  mountain 
ranges  are  the  Adirondack  and  Catskill  in  New  York,  ^nd 
the  Blue  and  Alleghany  in  Pennsylvania. 

X2 


The  mountains  lie  in  the  great  forest  belt ;  they  are  covered  with 
pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  and  other  evergreens  in  the  north,  and 
with  deciduous  trees  in  the  south.  The  only  lowlands  are  a  nar- 
row belt  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  another  on  the  Atlantic,  con- 
nected by  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and  the  Mohawk. 

3.  Climate. — The  winters  are  long  and  severe  in  the 
Adirondack  region,  but  milder  in  the  south ;  the  summers 
are  hot. 

4.  A^riciiltnre. — Potatoes  and  all  the  grains  except 
rice  are  produced  in  large  quantities,  but  the  population 
is  so  large,  and  so  many  are  engaged  in  mining,  manu- 


42 


MIDDLE   ATLANTIC   STATES  :   DESCRIPTION.— NEW  YORK,  NEW  JERSEY. 


facturing,  and  commerce,  that  all  of  these  states  except 
Maryland  buy  a  large  part  of  their  breadstuffs. 

5.  minerals. — Iron  is  abundant  in  all  the  states  of 
this  group  except  Delaware,  coal  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland,  zinc  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  salt  in 
New  York,  and  petroleum  in  Pennsylvania. 

6.  manufactures. — In  the  value  of  its  manufactured 
articles  this  group  of  states  ranks  first  in  the  Union. 
The  falls  of  the  numerous  rivers  which  drain  the  high- 
land, and  the  abundant  coal,  give  unusual  advantages  to 
this  form  of  industry. 


Mississippi,  excluding  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  California.  The 
common-school  system  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  United  States. 
The  cataract  of  Niagara,  in  the  Niagara  River,  is  the  grandest  water- 
fall in  the  world.  The  water  from  the  broad  basin  of  four  of  the 
Great  Lakes  here  falls  over  a  precipice  1(54  feet  high,  producing 
a  scene  of  wonderful  sublimity. 

The  City  of  New  York,  sometimes  called  the  Metro- 
politan City,  is  the  richest  and  most  populous  city  in 
America. 

It  is  noted  for  its  extensive  commerce,  the  number  of  its  mag- 
nificent hotels,  banks,  churches,  and  private  dwellings,  and  for  its 
Central  Park.  In  1880  only  two  cities  of  Europe — London  and 
Paris — exceeded  it  in  population. 


NEW   YORK    FROM    BROOKLYN    HEIGHTS. 


7.  Commerce. — The  Middle  Atlantic  States  are  the 
principal  commercial  section  of  the  Union. 

The  chief  routes  of  the  vast  domestic  commerce  of  this 
group  of  states  are  Hudson  River,  the  Erie  Canal,  the  New 
York,  Lake  Erie,  and  Western,  and  the  New  York  Central 
and  Hudson  River  Railroads,  in  New  York ;  Chesapeake 
and  Delaware  Bays,  and  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  in  Penn- 
sylvania ;  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  in  Maryland ; 
and  the  New  Jersey  Central  Railroad  in  New  Jersey. 

Into  these  few  channels  are  gathered  the  extensive 
coasting  trade  and  the  immense  system  of  railway  and 
river  lines  of  the  West  and  South, 

The  three  great  bays  and  the  excellent  harbors  of  the  Atlantic  coast, 
the  navigable  rivers,  and  the  easy  access  to  Europe  and  to  the 
rich  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Great  Lakes,  give  remark- 
able advantages  both  for  foreign  and  domestic  commerce.  The 
Hudson  is  navigable  to  Troy,  the  Delaware  to  Trenton,  and  the 
Potomac  to  Georgetown. 

8.  STew  York.  — New  York,  "the  Empire  State,"  is 
the  first  in  the  Union  in  population,  wealth,  and  com- 
merce. 

Its  population  in  1880  was  more  than  a  million  greater  than  that 
of  New  England,  and  equal  to  that  of  all  the  states  west  of  the 


Brooklyn,  the  third  city  of  the  United  States,  and  Jer- 
sey City,  in  New  Jersey,  are  connected  with  New  York 
by  many  short  ferries,  and  really  constitute  with  it  one 
great  city. 

Besides  these,  there  are  many  residential  towns  connected  with  New 
York  by  rivers  and  railroads.  So  numerous  are  these  towns  that 
the  total  number  of  inhabitants  within  a  circle  of  thirty  miles' 
radius  around  New  York  is  not  less  than  2,500,000  ;  the  popula- 
tion of  the  city  itself  by  day  is  at  least  1,500,000. 

Among  other  important  places  are  Buffalo,  on  Lake 
Erie,  the  third  city  of  the  state,  and  Albany,  the  capital 
and  fourth  city;  these  are  important  depots  of  grains 
and  other  produce ;  Buffalo  also  supplies  large  quanti- 
ties of  the  anthracite  coal  of  Pennsylvania  to  the  Lake 
States  and  Canada.  Syracuse  is  noted  for  its  salt-works ; 
Rochester,  Oswego,  Troy,  Utica,  Auburn,  and  Cohoes  for 
water-power  and  manufactures.  The  village  of  West 
Point,  beautifully  situated  on  the  Hudson,  is  the  seat  of 
the  United  States  Military  Academy. 

9.  Xew  Jersey. — New  Jersey,  lying  between  the  great 
cities  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  is  largely  engaged 
in  market-gardening  and  fruit-raising. 

Newark,  the  largest  city ;  Jersey  City,  a  suburb  of  New 


MIDDLE   ATLANTIC    STATES :   PENNSYLVANIA,  DELAWARE,  MARYLAND. 


43 


York;   Paterson,  at  the   Passaic  Falls;  and  Trenton,  the 
capital,  are  extensively  engaged  in  manufacturing. 

10.  Pennsylvania, — Pennsylvania,  "  the  Keystone 
State,"  is  remarkable  as  the  chief  mining  state  in  the 
Union.  It  produces  one  half  of  the  iron,  nearly  all  of 
the  petroleum,  and  three  fourths  of  the  coal  mined  in  the 
United  States. 

The  coal  of  this  state,  with  that  of  Maryland,  supplies  domestic 
fuel  and  the  steam-power  of  vessels,  locomotives,  and  factories 
for  a  large  part  of  the  United  States.  The  abundance  of  fuel 
and  iron  shapes  the  industries  of  its  leading  cities. 

Philadelphia  is  the  first  city  of  the  United  States  in 
manufactures,  the  second  in  population,  arid  the  fifth  in 
foreign  commerce. 

It  also  has  an  extensive  domestic  commerce,  and  is  the  greatest 
coal  depot  in  America.  It  is  noted  for  its  Fairmount  Park,  its 
well-supplied  markets,  and  its  abundance  of  cheap  and  comforta- 
ble dwellings  :  it  is  sometimes  called  the  "  City  of  Homes."  Its 
most  famous  public  building  is  the  State  House,  where  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence  was  adopted,  July  4,  1776. 


Pittsburgh,  the  second 
city  of  the  state,  is  the 
chief  centre  of  the  iron 
interest,  and  is  one  of  the  greatest  petroleum  markets  in 
the  world.  It  has  a  large  trade  with  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley in  bituminous  coal,  glass,  iron,  and  machinery,  Alle- 
gheny is  the  third  city  in  the  state. 

Scranton,  Pottsville,  and  Wilkesbarre  are  large  "  coal " 
towns  in  the  anthracite  region,  which  has  numerous  rail- 
ways and  canals  for  the  transportation  of  this  product. 
Harrisburg  is  the  capital. 

11.  Delaware. — Delaware  is  the  smallest  state  in  the 

Union  except  Rhode  Island,  and  is  noted  for  its  fruit  trade. 

Wilmington,  the  chief  city,  is  noted  for  the  construction 


COAL-MINE. 


of  iron  ships,  and  for  its  manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  a 
great  variety  of  other  articles.     Dover  is  the  capital. 

12.  Maryland. — Marj'land  is  noted  for  its  mild  cli- 
mate, and  for  its  production  of  tobacco,  coal,  and  iron. 

The  peninsula  between  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the 
Atlantic  is  the  great  peach-growing  district  of  the  United 
States. 

Baltimore  is  the  sixth  city  of  the  United  States  in  for- 
eign commerce  and  the  seventh  in  population. 

It  has  an  extensive  trade  in  tobacco,  canned  fruit,  and  oysters. 
It  is  the  terminus  of  a  trunk  railway,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  which 
connects  it  with  St.  Louis,  and  with  Chicago  and  other  lake-ports. 

Annapolis,  the  capital,  is  the  seat  of  the  Naval  School 
of  the  United  States. 

13.  District. or  Colnmbia. — The  District  of  Columbia, 
situated  on  the  Potomac,  has  an  area  of  sixty  square  miles. 
It  contains  Washington,  the  capital  of  the  United  States. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  area  of  this  group? — 3.  What  is  the  character  of 
its  surface  ?  Why?  Name  the  principal  mountain  ranges. — 3.  What  is  the  character 
of  its  climate  ? — i.  What  are  the  agricultural  products  ?  What  is  said  of  the  bread- 
stuffs  ? — 5.  What  and  where  are  the  chief  minerals.' — 6.  What  is  said  of  the  manu- 
factures ?  Of  the  natural  advantages  for  manufacturing  ? — 7.  What  is  said  of  the 
commerce?  Name  the  principal  routes.  What  is  said  of  them  .' — 8.  For  what  is 
the  State  of  New  York  remarkable  ?  The  City  of  New  York  ?  What  is  said  of 
Brooklyn  and  Jersey  City  ?  For  what  is  Buffalo  noted  ?  Albany  ?  Syracuse  ? 
West  Point  ?  What  cities  are  noted  for  water-power  and  manufactures  ? — 9.  What 
are  the  chief  occupations  in  New  Jersey  ?  What  cities  are  engaged  in  manufacturing  ? 
Which  is  the  largest  city?  The  capital? — 10.  For  what  is  Pennsylvania  noted? 
What  is  said  of  its  mineral  products  ?  For  what  is  Philadelphia  noted  ?  For  what 
is  Pittsburgh  noted  ?  Which  is  the  third  city  in  the  state  ?  Which  are  the  coal 
towns?  What  city  is  the  capital  ? — 11.  What  is  the  comparative  size  of  Delaware? 
For  what  is  it  noted?  Wilmington?  What  city  is  the  capital.' — 13.  For  what  is 
Maryland  noted?  What  is  said  of  the  peninsula?  Baltimore?  Annapolis.' — 13. 
What  is  the  area  of  the  District  of  Columbia  ?     What  city  does  it  contain  ? 

(II.) — 3.  In  what  belt  do  the  mountains  lie  ?  With  what  are  they  covered  ? 
Where  are  the  lowlands? — 7.  What  are  the  commercial  advantages  of  this  section? 
How  far  is  the  Hudson  navigable?  The  Delaware?  The  Potomac.' — 8.  What  is 
said  of  the  population  ?  Of  the  common-school  system  ?  Of  the  Falls  of  Niagara  ? 
For  what  is  New  York  City  noted  ?  What  is  said  of  its  population  ?  Of  the  residen- 
tial towns? — 10.  What  is  said  of  the  coal  of  Pennsylvania?  What  determines  the 
industries  of  the  leading  cities  ?  What  is  said  of  Philadelphia  ?  For  what  is  it  noted  ? 
What  is  it  sometimes  called?  What  is  its  most  famous  public  building? — 11.  What 
is  said  of  the  trade  of  Baltimore  ?     Of  what  great  railway  is  it  the  terminus  ? 


44 


ATLANTIC   AND   CENTRAL   STATES:   QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP.— REVIEW   EXERCISES. 


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46 


ATLANTIC    AND   CENTRAL   STATES.— ATLANTIC    STATES:    SOUTHERN    DIVISION. 


ATLANTIC    AND    CENTRAL    STATES: 

SOUTHERN    DIVISIONS. 


XLIX. 

ATLANTIC  STATES!  SOUTHERN  DIVISION. 

1.  Area. — The  area  of  the  four  northern  states  of  this 
group  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  eleven  Atlantic  States 
north  of  the  Potomac.  Florida  is  the  largest  state  east 
of  the  Mississippi. 

2.  Surface. — The  surface  consists  of  several  belts  of 
country  parallel  to  the  coast: 

First.  The  most  western  belt  contains  the  Blue  Ridge 
and  the  Iron  or  Smoky  Mountains,  with  the  high  valleys 
between. 

This  elevated  district  is  mostly  covered  with  forests  of  deciduous 
trees — oak,  hickory,  chestnut,  maple,  etc.  It  has  an  abundance 
of  water-power,  coal,  and  iron,  but  is  yet  undeveloped. 

Second.  East  of  the  mountain  belt  lies  a  broad  strip  of 
fertile  country.  It  produces  tobacco  in  the  north  and  cot- 
ton in  the  south. 

Third.  Farther  to  the  east  is  a  low  sandy  belt,  called 

the  "  Pine    Barrens,"  covered  with  forests.     It   supplies 

lumber,  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine. 

It  extends  nearly  to  the  Mississippi  on  the  west,  and  may  be  traced 
towards  the  north  through  New  Jersey  and  Long  Island. 

Foiirth.  The  low,  unhealthy  coast  region  contains  a  chain 

of  great  swamps,  extending  from  the  Dismal  Swamp  of 

Virginia  to   the    Everglades   of   Florida,  and   along  the 

shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Texas.     In  some  parts 


of  this  belt  rice  is  extensively  cultivated.     It  also  contains 
forests  of  live-oak,  which  is  valuable  for  ship-building. 

3.  Climate. — The  summers  are  long  and  hot.  The 
winters  are  mild  in  the  mountains  and  in  the  north ;  in  the 
southern  part  there  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  any  winter. 

The  moist  winds  of  the  Atlantic  and  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  give  to  Georgia  and  the  Gulf  States  the  largest 
rain-fall  known  in  any  part  of  the  United  States  excepting 
Puget  Sound  and  Alaska. 

The  production  of  cotton,  the  great  staple  of  the  South, 
and  one  of  the  chief  exports  of  the  United  States,  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  frequent  summer  showers. 

4.  Occupation  and  productions.  —  Agriculture  is 
the  leading  occupation.  The  principal  products  are  wheat, 
corn,  sweet  potatoes,  and  tobacco  in  the  north ;  rice  and 
cotton  in  the  south. 

5.  Tirg^inia. — Virginia,  "  the  Old  Dominion,"  is  the 
second  state  in  the  production  of  tobacco,  and  has  a  large 
trade  in  garden  vegetables,  Southern  agricultural  staples, 
and  in  oysters  from  the  Chesapeake  Bay. 

The  country  between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Alleghany  Mountains 
is  called  the  Great  Valley  of  Virginia,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
fertile  districts  in  the  United  States. 

Richmond,  at  the  falls  of  the  James,  is  the  capital  and 
chief  manufacturing  and  railroad  centre.  It  is  the  largest 
city  in  this  group  of  states,  and  has  an  extensive  trade  in 
iron  manufactures  and  tobacco. 

-^  Norfolk,  the  second  city, 
and  a  leading  cotton  port, 
has  the' best  harbor  in  the 
United  States  south  of  the 
Potomac. 

6.  Hforth  Carolina.  — 
North  Carolina,  "the  Old 
North  State,"  is  noted  for 
its  extensive  pine  forests. 

Wilmington,    the    largest 

city,  exports  turpentine,  tar, 

pitch,  rosin,  lumber,  rice,  and 

cotton.  Raleigh  is  the  capital. 

7.  Soutli  Carolina.— South  Carolina,  "the  Palmetto 

State,"  produces  more  rice  than  any  other  state. 

Charleston,  the  largest  city,  is  an  important  cotton  port. 
Columbia  is  the  capital. 


ATLANTIC   STATES :  GEORGIA,  FLORIDA.— CENTRAL   STATES  :   SOUTHERN   DIVISION. 


47 


8.  Creor^a. — Georgia  has  a  larger  population  and 
more  extensive  manufactures  than  any  other  sea-board 
state  south  of  Virginia.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly  of 
iron  and  cotton,  and  are  rapidly  increasing. 

Savannah  is  the  chief  port  and  largest  city.  Atlanta, 
the  capital,  is  a  thriving  city  and  an  important  railroad 
centre.  Columbus,  on  the  Chattahoochee,  has  abundant 
water-power,  and  manufactures  a  large  amount  of  cotton 
goods. 

9.  Florida. — Florida  is  noted  for  its  mild  climate  and 

its  orange-groves  and  other  tropical  vegetation. 

The  population  is  nearly  all  in  the  northeast,  and  within  100  miles 
of  the  northern  boundary.  The  southern  half  of  the  state  is  a 
low  morass. 

Jacksonville  is  the  largest  city.  St.  Augustine  is  the 
oldest  town  in  the  United  States.  Pensacola  has  the  best 
harbor  on  the  Gulf.  Key  West  is  a  wrecking  station,  and 
is  largely  engaged  in  sponge-fishing  and  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  cigars.     Tallahassee  is  the  capital. 

Questions  (T.) — 1.  What  is  the  area  of  the  four  northern  states  of  the  South  At- 
lantic group?  Of  Florida? — 2.  Of  what  divisions  does  the  surface  consist?  What 
constitutes  the  western  belt  ?  The  second  belt  ?  What  does  it  produce  ?  What  is  the 
third  belt?  What  does  it  supply ?  What  is  the  fourth  belt ?  What  are  the  produc- 
tions of  this  belt  ? — 3.  What  is  the  character  of  the  clitnate  ?  What  is  said  of  the  rain- 
fall ?  Of  the  production  of  cotton  ? — i.  What  is  the  leading  occupation  ?  Name  the 
chief  productions. — 5.  For  what  is  Virginia  noted?  Richmond?  Norfolk? — 6.  North 
Carolina?  Wilmington?  Raleigh? — 7.  South  Carolina  ?  Charleston?  Columbia? — 
S.Georgia?  Savannah?  Atlanta?  Columbus? — O.Florida?  What  is  said  of  Jack- 
sonville ?    St.  Augustine  ?    Pensacola  ?    Key  West  ?    Tallahassee  ? 

(II.) — 3.  What  is  said  of  the  forests  of  the  mountain  belt?  Of  its  water-power 
and  minerals  ?  What  is  the  extent  of  the  third  belt  ?—'>.  Where  and  what  is  the  Great 
Valley  ?— 9.  Where  is  most  of  the  population  of  Florida  ?  What  is  the  character  of 
the  southern  half  of  the  state  ? 


THE  OENTEAL  STATES :  SOUTHEEN  DIVISION. 

1.  Snrface. — This  group  of  states  has  a  diversified 
surface,  but  the  greater  part  is  in  the  low  Central  Plain. 

West  Virginia  lies  in  the  Eastern  Highland,  and  Mississippi  in  the 
Great  Plain.  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama  have  large 
highland  districts. 

2.  Climate. — The  climate  of  the  highlands  is  mild  and 
delightful ;  the  lowlands  have  long  and  hot  summers. 

3.  Soil. — The  greater  part  of  the  plain  is  very  fertile. 

4.  Occupations.  —  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupa- 
tion. The  leading  staples  are  cotton,  corn,  tobacco,  and 
hemp. 

All  but  West  Virginia  produce  cotton.  The  mountains  and  numer- 
ous rivers  of  the  Eastern  Highland  give  West  Virginia,  Kentucky, 
and  Tennessee  unlimited  water-power,  coal,  and  iron  :  these  are 
as  yet  but  little  used. 


and  other  large  navigable  rivers  radiate  from  the  highland 
and  fall  into  the  Ohio,  the  Mississippi,  and  the  Gulf.  These 
rivers  and  the  numerous  railways  furnish  excellent  com- 
mercial facilities. 

Louisville,  Knoxville,  Chattanooga,  Nashville,  Memphis, 
and  Mobile  are  the  leading  railroad  centres. 

6.  West  Tirginia. — West  Virginia  has  a  mountain- 
ous surface.  It  is  rich  in  bituminous  coal,  iron,  salt, 
and  petroleum. 

Wheeling,  on  the  Ohio  River,  is  the  capital  and  largest 
city.     Parkersburg  is  an  important  town. 

7.  Kentucky. — Kentucky  is  the  most  populous  state 
south  of  the  line  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  rivers. 

It  surpasses  every  other  state  in  the  production  of  tobacco,  and 
produces  half  of  the  hemp  raised  in  the  United  States. 


6.  Commerce.- 

'4 


-The  Cumberland, Tennessee,  Alabama, 


TOB.^CCO   PLANTATION. 


Louisville,  on  the  Ohio,  is,  after  New  Orleans,  the  largest 
city  south  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Potomac ;  it  has  a  large 
trade  in  flour,  pork,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  Covington  and 
Newport  are  opposite  Cincinnati.     Frankfort  is  the  capital. 

8.  Tennessee. — Tennessee  has  three  physical  divisions, 
known  as  East,  Middle,  and  West  Tennessee. 

East  Tennessee  is  a  mountainous  country,  and  is  re- 
markably rich  in  coal,  iron,  timber,  and  water-power. 

Knoxville,  on  the  Holston,  and  Chattanooga,  beautifully 
situated  on  the  Tennessee,  are  the  chief  depots  of  this  im- 
portant region. 

Middle  Tennessee,  the  most  populous  division,  is  famous 
for  its  production  of  corn,  tobacco,  and  live  stock.  Nash- 
ville, its  depot,  is  the  capital  and  largest  city  in  the  state. 

West  Tennessee  is  the  lowest  and  warmest  part  of  the 
state.     Cotton  is  the  chief  staple. 

Memphis  is  the  largest  city  on  Mississippi  River  except 
New  Orleans,  St.  Louis,  and  St.  Paul. 


48 


CENTRAL   STATES:   SOUTHERN   DIVISION.— QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP.— REVIEW   EXERCISES. 


9.  Alabama. — The  valleys   of 
the    Alabama,  the    Tombigbee, 
and  the  Tennessee  include   most  of  the  state, 
is  the  chief  product. 


Selma,  Tuscaloosa,  and  Montgomery,  the  capital,  are 
important  depots  for  cotton.  Mobile,  a  cotton  port,  is 
the  largest  city. 

10.  Slississippi. — Mississippi  is  noted  as  the  leading 
state  in  the  production  of  cotton.  -^ 

Vicksburg  is  the  most  important  city.  Jackson  is  the 
capital. 

Although  the  richest  in  the  most  important  export  of  the  United 
States,  this  is  the  only  Gulf  State  with  no  sea-port  of  its  own. 
It  has  no  large  city. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  character  of  the  surface  of  this  division?  Where 
does  the  greater  part  lie  ? — 2.  What  is  the  character  of  the  climate  ? — 3.  Of  the  soil  ? — 
4.  What  is  the  chief  occupation  ?  Name  the  leading  staples. — 5.  What  is  said  of  the 
chief  rivers  of  this  group.'  What  commercial  facilities  has  this  section?  Name  the 
leading  railroad  centres. — 6.  What  kind  of  a  surface  has  West  Virginia?  In  what 
minerals  is  it  rich?  What  is  the  capital  and  largest  city?  —  7.  For  what  is  Ken- 
tucky noted  ?  Louisville  ?  Covington  ?  Frankfort  ? — 8.  How  many  physical  divisions 
has  Tennessee  ?  Name  them.  For  what  is  East  Tennessee  noted  ?  Knoxville  and 
Chattanooga?  Middle  Tennessee?  Nashville?  West  Tennessee?  What  is  the 
principal  staple?  What  is  said  of  Memphis? — 9.  What  river  valleys  include  most 
of  the  State  of  Alabama?  What  is  the  chief  product  ?  Name  the  principal  cotton 
depots.  For  what  is  Mobile  noted.' — 10.  For  what  is  Mississippi  noted?  Name  the 
most  important  city.    The  capital. 

(II.) — 1.  Which  of  these  states  has  no  lowland?  Which  no  highland?  Which  have 
large  highland  districts? — 4.  Which  of  these  states  does  not  produce  cotton?  Which 
are  rich  in  water-power,  coal,  and  iron  ? — 7.  How  does  Kentucky  rank  in  the  production 
of  tobacco  ?    Of  hemp  ?— 10.  Has  Mississippi  any  sea-ports?    Any  large  cities? 


LI. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

General. — Name  the  states  of  this  group.  Which  border  on  the 
Ohio  River  ?  On  the  Mississippi  ?  On  Lake  Superior  ?  On  Lake 
Michigan?  On  Lake  Erie?  What  water  connects  Lake  Superior  with 
Lake  Huron?  Lake  Huron  with  Lake  Michigan?  With  Lake  St. 
Clair?  Lake  St.  Clair  with  Lake  Erie  ?  Which  of  these  states  has  no 
river  belonging  to  the  Mississippi  system  ? 

Ohio. — Name  the  three  chief  branches  of  the  Ohio  River  in  this 
state.  What  river  in  the  northwest  ?  What  city  on  the  Maumee  ?  What 
two  cities  on  Lake  Erie  ?  On  the  Ohio  ?  On  the  Miami  ?  What  city 
on  the  Muskingum  ?  On  the  Scioto  ?  West  of  Columbus  ?  What  three 
southeast  of  Cleveland  ?     What  city  is  the  capital  ? 

Indiana. — Which  is  the  chief  river  of  Indiana  ?  What  is  the  chief 
branch  of  the  Wabash  ?  What  large  city  on  the  west  fork  of  the  White  ? 
What  two  cities  on  the  Wabash  ?  What  two  on  the  Ohio  ?  What  city 
on  the  Maumee  ?     What  city  is  the  capital  ? 

Illinois. — ^Name  the  three  chief  branches  of  the  Mississippi  in  this 
state.  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  city  on  Rock  River?  On  the 
Mississippi  ?  On  Lake  Michigan  ?  What  three  near  Chicago  ?  On 
the  Illinois  River?     Northwest  of  Peoria?     Southeast  of  Peoria? 

Wisconsin. — Which  is  the  chief  branch  of  the  Mississippi  in  this 
state  ?  What  lake  in  the  eastern  part  ?  What  river  is  its  outlet  ?  Into 
what  bay  does  it  flow  ?  What  two  cities  on  Lake  Winnebago  ?  On  Lake 
Michigan  ?    What  city  on  Mississippi  River  ?    What  city  is  the  capital  ? 

Michigan, — Of  what  does  Michigan  chiefly  consist?  {Of  two  great 
peninsulas})  What  large  island  in  Lake  Superior  belongs  to  this  state  ? 
Which  is  the  chief  river  of  South  Michigan  ?  What  three  cities  on 
Grand  River?  Which  of  these  is  the  capital?  What  city  south  of 
Grand  Rapids?  What  city  on  Muskegon  River?  What  bay  on  the 
eastern  shore  ?  What  river  flows  into  it  ?  What  two  cities  on  Saginaw 
River?     On  Detroit  River? 

Voyages  and  Travels. — Through  what  waters  would  you  pass,  and 


near  what  cities,  in  a  coasting  voyage  from  Chicago  to  the  head  of  Lake 
Superior?  Chicago  to  Cleveland  ?  What  cities  would  you  pass  between 
Cincinnati  and  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  ?  By  rail  from  Chicago  to  Osh- 
kosh  ?  Chicago  to  St.  Louis  ?  Chicago  to  Evansville  ?  Chicago  to 
Louisville  by  way  of  Logansport  ?  Chicago  to  Cleveland  ?  Cleveland 
to  Cincinnati?    Cleveland  to  Grand  Rapids  by  way  of  Detroit? 


LII. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES. 


States. — How  bounded")    What  is  the  capital i     The  largest  cityi 


states. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population 
in  1880. 

States. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population 
in  1880. 

Ohio 

40,000 
33,800 
55,400 

3,198,239 
1,978,262 
3,078,969 

Wisconsin 

Michigan 

53,900 
56,,'iOO 

1,315,480 
1,636,335 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Cities  and  Towns. — In  what  part  of  the  state  ?     How  situated? 

Columbus?  Cincinnati?  Cleveland?  Toledo?  Dayton?  Spring- 
field?    Zanesville?     Akron?     Sandusky? 

Indianapolis  ?  Evansville  ?  Fort  Wayne  ?  Terre  Haute  ?  New 
Albany?     Lafayette? 

Springfield?  Chicago?  Peoria?  Quincy?  Bloomington ?  Joliet? 
Hyde  Park  ? 

Madison  ?     Milwaukee  ?     Racine  ?     Oshkosh  ?     La  Crosse  ? 

Lansing?  Detroit?  Grand  Rapids?  Bay  City?  East  Saginaw? 
Jackson  ?     Kalamazoo  ? 

Bays. —  Where  is  it?    Green?     Saginaw? 

Rivers. — Where  does  it  rise?  In  what  direction  does  it  flow?  Through 
what  states  ?     Into  what  Iwdy  of  water  ? 

Scioto?  Wabash?  White?  Illinois?  Wisconsin?  St. Marys?  Fox? 
Grand?     St.  Clair?     Detroit?     Maumee?     Saginaw? 

Lakes.—  Where  situated ?    What  outlet  ?     Winnebago  ?     St.  Clair  ? 


Longitude    TVeet        87 

1  .  1  i 


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from    Greenwich. 

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MAP  OF  THE 

CE:^^TTlAL  STATES, 

JSrORTHERJV  DIVISION. 


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50 


NORTHERN    CENTRAL   STATES:    DESCRIPTION.— OHIO. 


NORTHERN     CENTRAL    STATES. 


LIII. 

OENTEAL  STATES:  NOETHEEN  DIVISION. 

1.  This  group  lies  wholly  in  the  Great  Central  Plain. 

2.  Snrfjfice. — There  are  no  mountains. 

There  is  a  hilly  region  in  the  southeast,  towards  the  Ohio,  and  an- 
other and  more  rugged  one  towards  Lake  Superior. 

The  greater  part  of  Illinois  and  the  adjacent  parts  of 
Wisconsin  and  Indiana  are  level  or  rolling  prairies.  The 
rest  of  the  vast  plain,  and  the  hilly  regions,  are  covered 
with  forests  except  where  cleared  for  cultivation. 

3.  Climate. — The  winters  are  severe,  especially  in  the 
north ;  the  summers  are  hot. 

4.  Jflineral'^.  —  The  hilly  region  near  Lake  Superior 
contains  an  abundance  of  iron-ore  and  the  richest  copper- 


\w:--,- 


COPPER-MINING. 


mines  in  the  world;  tjiat  near  the  Ohio  is  equally  rich 
in  iron,  and  contains  very  extensive  deposits  of  coal.  An 
important  lead  region  covers  the  adjacent  parts  of  Wis- 
consin and  Illinois  near  the  Mississippi.  Michigan  pro- 
duces a  large  amount  of  salt. 

5.  Occupations.  —  Agriculture  and  grazing  are  the 
leading  pursuits.  Of  wheat,  corn,  wool,  and  live  stock  the 
quantity  produced  is  unsurpassed  by  that  of  any  equal  area 
on  the  globe.  Manufacturing  and  mining  are  important, 
and  are  rapidly  increasing  in  the  coal  and  iron  districts. 


6.  Commerce. — The  commercial  advantages  of  this 
group  are  remarkable.  Three  of  the  principal  water- 
ways of  the  continent— the  Mississippi,  the  Ohio,  and  the 
Great  Lakes — form  an  almost  complete  boundary. 

On  or  near  this  margin  lie  all  the  largest  cities  in  the 
United  States  west  of  Atlantic  tide-water  excepting  San 
Francisco  and  New  Orleans.  Milwaukee,  Chicago,  Detroit, 
Toledo,  Cleveland,  and  Cincinnati  are  on  the  inner  margin 
of  the  district ;  and  St.  Paul,  St.  Louis,  Louisville,  Pitts- 
burgh, and  Buffalo  are  just  outside  of  it. 

The  chief  business  of  the  large  and  important  inland 
city  Indianapolis,  and  of  all  these  lake  and  river  ports  ex- 
cept Pittsburgh,  and  of  the  systems  of  railways  of  which 
they  are  the  centres,  is  the  collection  and  transportation 
of  the  agricultural  and  grazing  products  of  this  vast 
granary  and  those  of  the  equally  productive  adjacent 
states  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Canals  connect  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Great  Lakes  with  navi- 
gable branches  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Ohio,  the  Wisconsin 
with  the  Fox,  the  Illinois  with  the  Chicago,  and  the  Wabash  with 
the  Maumee.  The  falls  in  the  St.  Marys  River,  at  the  entrance 
of  Lake  Superior,  are  passed  by  a  ship-canal  in  Michigan. 

Most  of  the  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  system  have  high  banks  called 
bluffs.  The  depth  of  water  in  these  rivers  varies  greatly  during 
the  year,  the  Ohio  sometimes  having  a  "rise"  of  fifty  feet. 

7.  Inhabitants. — The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  descend- 
ants of  immigrants  from  the  North  Atlantic  and  Middle 
Atlantic  States ;  most  of  the  remainder  are  European 
immigrants. 

No  part  of  the  world  possesses  a  larger  proportion  of  intelligent, 
industrious,  self-reliant  citizens  ;  and  no  equal  area  surpasses 
this  group  of  states  in  the  excellence  of  the  common  schools 
and  the  general  interest  in  public  education. 

The  Germans  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  foreign-born  popu- 
lation ;  the  Irish  are  next  in  numerical  importance ;  there  are 
also  many  thousands  of  Swedes,  Norwegians,  and  Danes. 

8.  Ohio. — Ohio  is  the  first  state  in  the  Union  in  the 
production  of  wool,  the  second  in  that  of  coal,  and  is  the 
third  in  population.  In 'the  amount  and  variety  of  its 
manufactures  it  exceeds  every  other  state  west  of  the 
Appalachian  Mountains. 

Cincinnati,  the  largest  city,  and  the  metropolis  of  the 
Ohio  Valley,  has  an  extensive  trade  in  provisions  and 
grain,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  manufacturing  cities  in 
the  United  States. 

Cleveland,  the  second  city,  is  one  of  the  five  Great  Lake 
ports.  Toledo,  also  a  lake-port,  Dayton,  and  Columbus, 
the  capital,  are  among  the  numerous  large  cities. 


NORTHERN   CENTRAL   STATES :   INDIANA,  ILLINOIS,  WISCONSIN,  MICHIGAN. 


51 


9.  Indiana. — Indiana  is  the  sixth  state  in  population, 
and  has  a  level  surface,  fertile  soil,  and  valuable  mines  of 
block-coal.  It  produces  a  large  amount  of  grain  and  live 
stock. 

Indianapolis,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  a  great  rail- 
road centre,  and  one  of  the  most  important  and  rapidly 
growing  cities  of  the  Central  States.  Evansville  and  Fort 
Wayne  are  next  in  population. 

10.  Illinois. — Illinois  is  the  first  state  in  the  Union  in 
the  production  of  corn  and  wheat,  and  the  fourth  in  popu- 
lation. It  possesses  one  of  the  most  extensive  coal-fields 
in  the  world. 

This  state  is  mostly  prairie,  with  low  hills  on  the  Ohio  and  bluffs 
on  the  Mississippi. 

Chicago,  the  largest  city  in  the  state,  and  the  commer- 
cial metropolis  of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin,  is  the  chief 
lumber  and  pork  market  in  America,  and,  next  to  London, 
the  greatest  grain  market  in  the  world. 

A  large  number  of  railways  radiate  from  it  as  a  centre.  The  city 
is  of  recent  and  remarkably  rapid  growth,  having  more  than 
tripled  in  population  in  the  last  ten  years.  Originally  built  on 
low  ground,  it  has  become,  in  its  grading,  drainage,  and  water- 
supply,  a  monument  to  the  energy,  sagacity,  and  public  spirit  of 
its  citizens. 

In  October,  1871,  a  fire,  one  of  the  most  destructive  in  modern 
times,  swept  away  three  and  a  quarter  square  miles  of  its  most 
valuable  storehouses  and  residences.  The  direct  loss  was  esti- 
mated at  nearly  $200,000,000,  and  the  loss  of  business  at 
890,000,000  more.  Notwithstanding  this  sudden  calamity,  the 
most  extensive  and  disastrous  that  ever  befell  an  American  com- 
munity, the  new  Chicago  that  has  already  sprung  from  the  ashes 
of  the  old  is  in  every  respect  a  grander  city. 

Among  other  important  cities  are  Quincy  and  Peoria. 

Springfield  is  the  capital. 

11.  Wisconsin. — Wisconsin  resembles  Illinois  in  the 
abundant  production  of  wheat,  and  Michigan  in  that  of 
lumber.  This  state  has  a  large  number  of  beautiful  lakes ; 
it  also  has  an  abundance  of  water-power,  that  of  the  Fox 
River,  between  Winnebago  Lake  and  Green  Bay,  being 
among  the  most  valuable  in  the  United  States. 

The  population  is  mostly  in  the  south. 
Milwaukee,  the  largest  city,  is  one  of  the  five  Great  Lake 
ports,  and  has  a  large  commerce  in  breadstuffs,  provisions, 
and    lumber.     Racine,  Oshkosh,  La    Crosse,  and    Fond 
du  Lac  are  important  places.     Madison  is  the  capital. 

12.  9Iiclii$iran. — Michigan  consists  of  two  peninsulas. 
It  is  bordered  by  four  of  the  five  Great  Lakes,  and  has 
more  coast  than  any  other  state  excepting  Florida. 

The  population  is  mostly  in  the  south,  which  is  fertile.  The  north- 
ern part  of  the  southern  peninsula  is  sandy,  and  covered  with 
valuable  forests  of  white  pine.  The  North  Central  States  furnish 
a  ready  market  for  the  salt  of  Saginaw  and  for  the  lumber  of 
Saginaw  and  of  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan.     Other 

I6 


important  productions  are  white-fish  from  the  Great  Lakes  and 
copper  and  iron  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior. 

The  country  along  the  western  coast  of  the  southern 

peninsula  is  known  as  the  Fruit  Belt. 

In  winter  the  cold  winds  from  Wisconsin  become  partly  warmed 
in  sweeping  over  the  broad  and  open  waters  of  Lake  Michigan, 
and  give  to  these  shores  so  mild  a  winter  climate  that  fruit  trees 
are  seldom  injured  by  extreme  cold. 

Detroit,  the  eastern  entrance  to  Michigan  and  the  upper 

lakes,  is  the  largest  city.     Grand  Rapids,  the  second  city, 

is  noted  for  its  lumber  and  water-power.     Lansing  is  the 

capital. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  Where  is  this  group  sitaated? — 3.  What  peculiarity  has  its 
surface?  Where  are  the  prairie  regions?  The  forest  regions? — 3.  What  is  the  char- 
acter of  the  climate? — i.  What  minerals  in  the  hilly  region  near  Lake  Superior?  In 
that  near  the  Ohio  ?  Where  is  the  lead  region  ?  Which  of  these  states  produces  salt  ? 
— 5.  Name  the  two  leading  pursuits.  What  is  said  of  the  products?  Of  manufactur- 
ing and  mining? — 6.  What  is  said  of  the  commercial  advantages?  Name  the  three 
great  water-ways.  What  do  they  form  ?  What  is  said  of  this  boundary  ?  What  cities 
are  on  the  inner  margin  of  this  district?  What  cities  are  just  outside  of  it?  What  is 
the  chief  business  of  these  cities  ? — 7.  Who  are  the  inhabitants  ? — 8.  For  what  is  Ohio 
noted?  Cincinnati?  Cleveland?  What  cities  are  next  in  size?  Which  of  these  is 
the  capital  ? — 9.  For  what  is  Indiana  noted  ?  Indianapolis  ?  What  other  important 
cities .' — 10.  For  what  is  Illinois  noted  ?  What  is  said  of  its  coal-fields  ?  For  what  is 
Chicago  noted  ?  What  other  important  cities  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ? — 11.  What 
are  the  principal  productions  of  Wisconsin  ?  What  is  said  of  its  lakes  and  water- 
power?  For  what  is  Milwaukee  noted  ?  What  other  important  places  ?  What  city 
is  the  capital.' — 12.  P"or  what  is  Michigan  remarkable?  Where  is  its  fruit  belt? 
For  what  is  Detroit  noted?     Grand  Rapids?     What  city  is  the  capital? 

(11.) — 2.  Where  are  the  hilly  regions? — G.  What  is  said  of  the  canals?  Of  the 
ship-canal?  Of  the  banks  of  the  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  system?  Of  the  depth  of 
water?  Hnw  high  is  the  rise  of  the  Ohio? — 7.  What  is  the  char.acter  of  the  people  of 
this  group  ?  Of  the  common  schools  ?  Name  the  chief  elements  of  the  foreign-born 
population.— 10.  What  is  the  character  of  the  surface  of  Illinois?  Of  what  is  Chicago 
the  centre  ?  What  is  said  of  its  growth  ?  Of  its  grading,  drainage,  and  water-supply  ? 
With  what  calamity  was  it  visited  in  1871  ?  What  was  the  estimated  loss?  What  is 
said  of  its  present  condition? — 11.  Where  is  most  of  the  population  of  Wisconsin? — 
13.  Where  is  most  of  the  population  of  Michigan  ?  Where  arc  the  forests?  Fol 
what  products  do  the  North  Central  States  furnish  a  market?  What  others  are  im- 
portant?    What  part  of  the  state  is  favorab'.e  to  the  production  of  fruit? 


98       Jxui^tuUe    'Weat    96    from    Oreen-wich-      yi 


iJllieOftke 


WEST  CENTRAL  STATES      " 

JVND 

STATES  OF  THE  PLAINS. 

TsTORTHER  X  DIVISIOJY. 

Scale  of  Slile?. 


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ICoryiV*'*  l»*^.   V   UlTi-cr   <A   £r(*i*r«J. 


WEST   CENTRAL   STATES   AND    STATES   OF   THE   PLAINS. 


53 


'QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

General. — How  many  states  and  territories  on  this  map  ?  Which  is 
the  territory?  Which  three  belong  to  the  West  Central  States?  (See 
page  29.)  To  what  do  the  other  three  belong?  Which  is  the  smallest 
of  the  six  ?  The  largest  ?  Which  are  crossed  by  the  Missouri  ?  Which 
are  partly  bounded  by  it  ? 

Minnesota. — What  chain  of  lakes  forms  the  northeast  boundary  of 
Minnesota?  What  ridge  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state?  What  great 
river  rises  in  this  state  ?  In  what  lake  ?  What  branch  crosses  the 
southwestern  part  of  this  state  ?  What  river  has  its  source  very  near 
that  of  the  Minnesota?  Why  is  the  Red  River  of  the  North  important? 
{Because  it  is  the  natural  water  route  to  the  tnost  ferti/e  part  of  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada.)  Into  what  lake  does  it  flow?  What  city  is  the 
capital?  ^Vhat  city  west  of  it?  (St.  Anthony  has  become  a  part  of 
Minneapolis.)  What  city  in  the  southeast  on  the  Mississippi?  In  what 
part  of  the  state  are  most  of  the  towns? 

Iowa. — Between  what  rivers  is  Iowa  ?  What  river  crosses  it  ?  What 
city  is  the  capital  ?  What  city  on  the  Missouri  ?  What  four  cities  on 
the  Mississippi? 

Missouri. — What  mountains  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Missouri? 
What  two  mountains  in  the  southeastern  part?  What  river  crosses  the 
state  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  two  other  cities  on  the  Mis- 
souri ?     What  two  on  the  Mississippi  ? 

Dakota. — What  mountains  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Dakota?  What 
name  is  given  to  the  country  south  of  the  Black  Hills?  What  river 
crosses  Dakota  ?  What  is  its  northern  branch  ?  What  highland  between 
the  Dakota  River  and  the  Missouri?  In  what  part  of  the  territory  are 
the  towns?    Which  one  is  the  capital? 

Nebraska. — What  boundary  river  has  Nebraska?  What  branch  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  state  ''  What  is  the  character  of  the  country 
south  of  the  Niobrara?  What  river  crosses  the  state?  In  what  part 
of  the  state  are  most  of  the  towns  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  What 
cities  on  the' Missouri  River? 


Kansas. — What  river  crosses  the  southwestern  part  of  Kansas? 
What  river  north  of  the  Arkansas  ?  Of  what  river  is  it  a  branch  ?  What 
two  cities  on  the  Kansas  River  ?  Which  is  the  capital  ?  What  two  cities 
on  the  Missouri  ?     In  what  part  of  the  state  are  most  of  the  towns  ? 

Travels. — What  cities  would  you  pass  in  a  steamboat  voyage  from 
St.  Louis  to  St.  Paul  ?  From  St.  Louis  to  Yankton  ?  By  rail  from  St. 
Louis  to  Topeka? 


EEVIEW  EXEEOISES. 

%t2A&s.— How  bounded?    What  is  the  capital?     The  largest  city  t 


W^EST  CKNTRAL  STATES: 
KOKTHERJi   DlVlSIOJf. 

STATES  OF  THE  PLAINS: 
NOKTHKKS  DIVISION. 

States. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population 

in  1880. 

States. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population 
in  ISSO. 

Minnesota 

83,500 
55,000 
65,400 

780,806 
1,624,463 
2,168,804 

Dakota  T. 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

151,000 
76,000 
81,300 

.134, ,502 
4.52,432 
995,961 

Missouri 

Cities  and  Towns, — In  what  part  of  the  stated     How  situated? 
St.  Paul  ?     Minneapolis  ?     Winona  ? 

Des    Motnes  ?     Dubuque  ?     Davenport  ?      Burlington  ?     Council 
Bluffs  ?     Keokuk  ? 

Jefferson  City?    St.  Louis?    Kansas  City?    St.  Joseph?   Hannibal? 

Yankton  ? 

Lincoln  ?     Omaha  ?     Nebraska  City  ? 

Topeka  ?     Leavenworth  ?     Atchison  ?     Lawrence  ? 

Mountains. —  Where  are  they? 

Height  of  Land?    Ozark?     Pilot  Knob  ?     Iron?    Black  Hills? 

Rivers. —  Where  does  it  rise?    In  what  direction  does  it  flow?    Through 
7i'hat  states  ?     Into  what  body  of  water  ? 

Mississippi?     Missouri?     Minnesota?     Red  River  of  the  North? 
Des  Moines?     Platte?     Kansas? 

[For  Sections  LVI.  and  LVII.,  see  page  54,] 


WEST   CENTRAL   STATES   and   STATES   OF  THE   PLAINS. 


LVIII. 

WEST  CENTRAL  STATES. 

1.  The  five  states  of  this  group  form  a  belt  of  nearly 
equal  width  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  United  States.     (See  map  on  page  28.) 

2.  HnrfUce.^ — The  West  Central  States  resemble  each 

other  in  the  fertility  of  their  soil  and  in  the  general  level 

of  their  surface. 

They  are  mostly  low  prairies,  with  timber  in  the  "bottom  lands." 
The  only  elevations  are  the  short,  low  ranges  of  the  Boston  and 
Ozark  Mountains,  and  the  clay  and  sand  hills  of  Minnesota. 

Each  state  has  the  Mississippi  as  its  eastern  boundary, 
and  is  divided  almost  diagonally  by  a  great  navigable 
branch  flowing  towards  the  southeast. 

3.  Climate.  —  The  chief  difiference  is  in  climate, 
which  ranges   from   the   short   summers   and  long,  cold 

•7 


winters  of  Minnesota  to  the  almost  tropical  seasons  of 
Louisiana. 

4.  Prodacfions. — The  difference  in  climate  causes  a 
corresponding  difference  in  the  products.  Agriculture 
is  the  leading  interest  throughout  this  group  of  states. 
The  great  staples,  in  the  order  of  latitude,  are  rice,  sugar, 
cotton,  corn,  hemp,  and  wheat.  There  are  also  immense 
quantities  of  live  stock. 

Each  of  these  states  strongly  resembles  its  eastern  neighbor  in  cli- 
mate, soil,  and  productions. 

5.  Popniation. — The  population  of  the  northern  half 
of  this  group  is  mostly  derived  from  the  same  sources  and 
is  of  the  same  general  character  as  that  of  the  North  Cen- 
tral States.  Public  education  is  provided  for  with  equal 
liberality,  and  the  common  schools  are  among  the  first  in 
excellence.     The  population  of  the  southern  half  of  the 


54 


WEST   CENTRAL   STATES   AND    STATES   OF   THE   PLAINS. 


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STATES  OP  THE  PLAINS: 

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Austin  ?     Northeast  ?     On  t 

WEST  CENTRAL  STATES 

SOUTHEBX  BIVISIOX. 

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56 


WEST  CENTRAL   STATES   AND   STATES   OF  THE   PLAINS. 


make  it  the  centre  of  many  thousands  of  miles  of  river  naviga- 
tion, about  1000  miles  being  within  the  limits  of  the  state  or  on 
its  loundaries.  Twenty-four  lines  of  railway  centre  at  St.  Louis, 
and  connect  it  with  all  parts  of  the  country,  from  Galveston  and 
Mobile  to  New  York,  Boston,  and  San  Francisco.  A  great  rail- 
road bridge,  with  arches  of  steel,  connects  it  directly  with  the 
railroads  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

Other  important  places  are  Kansas  City  and  St.  Jo- 
seph.    The  capital  is  Jefferson  City. 

10.  Arkansas. — The  great  staple  of  Arkansas  is 
cotton. 

The  other  resources  of  this  state  are  as  yet  but  little  developed. 
Little  Rock  is  the  capital  and  largest  city. 

11.  Louisiana. — Louisiana  was  settled  by  the  French. 
Their  descendants,  who  still  constitute  a  considerable 
part  of  the  population,  speak  the  French  language,  and 
are  called  Creoles — that  is,  natives. 


This  state  is  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  Great  Plain.  The  surface 
of  the  Lower  Mississippi  during  the  annual  floods  is  several  feet 
higher  than  the  country  through  which  it  passes,  especially  in 
Louisiana,  and  broad  walls  of  earth,  called  levees,  have  been 
constructed  to  confine  it  and  its  tributaries  within  their  banks. 
Sometimes  the  water  breaks  through  the  levees,  and  hundreds 
of  square  miles  of  valuable  sugar,  rice,  and  cotton  plantations 
are  ruined.     Such  a  breach  is  called  a  crevasse. 

The  state  has  no  mineral  wealth  except  a  vein  of  pure  rock-salt, 
singularly  situated  in  a  low  island  in  the  southern  marshes,  and 
of  incalculable  value. 


PP'Ha    THE    vK'.r'. 


New  Orleans,  the  cap- 
ital and  largest  city,  is 
the  greatest  cotton  port 
in  the  world.  It  has  also 
an  extensive  trade  in 
sugar,  breadstuffs,  and 
provisions. 

It  is  about  one  hundred 
miles  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  River.    It 


SCENE  ON    THE   MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

is  also  connected  with  the 
Gulf  through  lakes  Pontchar- 
train  and  Borgne  by  canals 
for  vessels  of  light  draught. 


Questions  (I.) — l.  What  do  the  five 
states  of  this  group  form  ? — 3.  In  what  re- 
spects do  they  resemble  each  other  >  What  river  forms  their  eastern  boundary  ?  By 
what  is  each  divided?— 3.  In  what  do  they  chiefly  differ?— 4.  What  other  differences 
arise  from  difference  in  climate  ?  What  is  the  leading  interest  ?  Name  the  great 
staples  in  the  order  of  their  latitude.  What  other  important  products  ?— 5.  What  is 
said  of  the  population  of  the  northern  half  of  this  group  ?  Of  public  education  ?  Of 
the  common  schools?  Of  the  population  of  the  southern  half? — 6.  What  commercial 
advantages  has  this  group  ?  What  is  the  chief  commercial  centre?  What  other  two 
important  depots? — 7.  What  elevation  does  Minnesota  contain?  For  what  is  Min- 
nesota noted  ?  St.  Paul  ?  Minneapolis  ?— 8.  What  kind  of  a  surface  has  Iowa  ?  What 
are  its  products  ?  Which  is  the  largest  city  ?  What  other  important  towns  ?— 9,  For 
what  is  Missouri  noted  ?  For  what  is  St.  Louis  distinguished  ?  What  other  im- 
portant places?  What  is  the  capital  .'—10.  What  is  the  great  staple  of  Arkansas? 
What  city  is  the  capital  ?— 11.  By  whom  was  Louisiana,settled  ?  Who  are  the  Creoles  ? 
For  what  is  New  Orleans  noted ?    What  other  trade  has  it? 

(11.)— 3.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  surface  of  the  West  Central  States  ? 
What  elevations  have  they  .>— 4.  What  does  each  of  these  states  resemble  ?— 7.  How  is 
the  Height  of  Land  drained?  Where  are  the  lakes?— 9.  How  does  Missouri  rank  in 
population  ?  What  is  said  of  its  coal  and  iron  ?  Which  is  the  leading  mineral  inter- 
est? What  remarkable  iron-mines  has  it?  What  is  said  of  its  lead-mines?  What 
manufactures  has  St.  Louis?  What  other  business  has  it?  Of  what  is  it  the  centre? 
What  is  said  of  its  railway  connections  ?— 10.  What  is  said  of  the  resources  of  Arkan- 
sas ? — 11.  Where  is  Louisiana  situated  ?  How  does  the  height  of  its  surface  compare 
with  that  of  the  Mississippi?  What  are  levees?  What  is  their  use?  What  is  a 
crevasse  ?  What  mineral  has  this  state  ?  Where  is  New  Orleans  situated  ?  In  what 
other  way  is  it  connected  with  the  Gulf? 


LIX. 

STATES  OF  THE  PLAINS. 


1.  Sitnation. — This  group  of  three  states  and  two  ter- 
ritories lies  chiefly  in  the  eastern  division  of  the  Great 
Western  Highland. 

2.  Snrface. — It  consists  principally  of  rolling  prairies, 
and  is  part  of  the  high  plains  that  extend  west  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 


WESTERN   STATES:   DIVISION   OF  THE   PLAINS. 


57 


Texas   these   plains   are 
called    the    Llano    Esta- 
cado,  or  "Staked  Plain," 
from  the  stakes  once  set 
up  to  show  the  "  trail "  from  Santa  F6  to  the  Mississippi. 

3.  Inhabitants. — The  civilized  inhabitants  are  mostly 
in  the  eastern  part,  near  the  great  rivers,  the  country  here 
being  lower,  better  watered,  and  more  fertile. 

4.  Occupations.  —  Agriculture  and  stock-raising  are 
the  principal  occupations. 

5.  Dakota. — Dakota  is  an  organized  territory  with  a 

small  population.     It  is  better  adapted  to  grazing  than  to 

agriculture. 

It  is  crossed  by  the  line  of  the  North  Pacifc  Railroad.     "The 
Bad  Lands"  are  a  large,  desolate  tract  in  the  southwest. 

Yankton,  a  small  town  on  the  Missouri,  is  the  capital. 

6.  Kansas  and  Nebraska. — Kansas  and  Nebraska 
resemble  each  other  in  climate  and  productions.  The 
Kansas  Pacific  Railroad  passes  through  Kansas,  and  the 
Union  Pacific  through  Nebraska. 

Leavenworth  is  the  largest  city  in  Kansas;  Topeka  is 
the  capital.  Omaha,  on  the  Missouri,  is  the  largest  city 
in  Nebraska;  Lincoln  is  the  capital. 


or  nations,  most  of  whom  once  resided  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi.     It  is  unorganized. 

Tahlequah  is  the  capital  of  the  Cherokee  nation. 

8.  Texas. — Texas  is  the  largest  state  in  the  Union, 
and  is  noted  for  its  great  extent  of  fertile  soil. 

It  is  about  five  times  the  size  of  New  York,  or  more  than  thirty 
times  as  large  as  Massachusetts.  The  population  is  rapidly 
increasing  by  immigration  from  the  states  east  of  the  Mississip- 
pi and  from  Germany.     There  are  no  very  large  cities. 

As  a  grazing  and  agricultural  state  its  resources  are 
immense.  Corn,  cotton,  cattle,  and  wool  are  the  chief 
staples. 


CONSTRUCTING  A   KAILROAD. 


SNOW-PLOUGH  ON    PACIFIC  RAILROAD. 


7.  Indian  Territory. — Indian  Territory  is  a  country 
set  apart  by  Congress  as  the  home  of  certain  Indian  tribes. 


It  has  more  fertile  and  well-watered  land  than  all  the  rest  of  the 
states  of  this  group  taken  together.  The  farms  are  mostly  on 
the  coast  or  in  the  river-bottoms. 

Texas  has  recently  become  one  of  the  leading  states  in  the  pro- 
duction of  cotton  :  it  is  said  to  have  at  least  25,000  square  miles 
suitable  for  its  cultivation.  It  has  an  equal  area  adapted  to  the 
cultivation  of  wheat.  It  has  a  very  large  trade  in  cattle,  more 
than  600,000  having  been  driven  to  the  north,  through  Indian 
Territory,  Kansas,  and  Missouri,  in  a  single  year. 

The  northern  part  of  the  state  has  an  abundance  of  coal,  iron, 
and  copper. 

Galveston  is  the  chief  port  and  largest  city ;  it  is  con- 
nected with  St.  Louis  by  railway.  Houston  and  Dallas 
are  important  railway  centres.     Austin  is  the  capital. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  Where  is  this  group  situated? — 2.  Of  what  does  it  principally 
consist? — 3.  Where  are  most  of  the  inhabitants  located?  Why? — 4.  What  are  the 
chief  occupations? — 5.  What  is  Dakota?  To  what  is  it  best  adapted?  What  town 
is  the  capital.' — G.  What  two  states  resemble  each  other?  What  great  railroads  pass 
through  them?  Which  is  the  largest  city  of  Kansas?  The  capital?  The  largest 
city  of  Nebraska?  The  capital?—?.  What  is  the  Indian  Territory  ?— 8.  For  what  is 
Texas  remarkable  ?  What  is  said  of  its  resources?  What  are  its  chief  staples?  Its 
largest  city  ?     Its  important  railway  centres  ?    Its  capital  ? 

(II.)— 2.  What  name  is  given  to  these  plains  in  Texas  ?  Why.'— .I.  What  railroad 
line  crosses  Dakota?  What  and  where  are  the  Bad  Lands?— 8.  What  is  the  com- 
parative size  of  Texas  ?  What  is  saidof  the  popukation?  Of  the  cities?  How  does 
it  compare  in  fertility  with  the  other  states  of  this  group?  Where  are  the  farms? 
What  is  said  of  the  production  of  cotton  ?  Of  wheat?  Of  the  trade  in  cattle  ?  In 
what  part  of  the  state  are  the  minerals? 


ICopifrighi,  1876;  6y  Harptr  t£  Bfoth»ra.\ 


WESTERN   STATES:   ROCKY    MOUNTAIN   DIVISION. 


59 


LX. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

General. — How  many  groups  of  states  and  territories  on  this  map? 
(See  page  29.)  How  many  states  and  how  many  territories  in  each 
group?  What  territory  on  the  Pacific  is  not  on  this  map?  {Alaska.) 
In  what  direction  do  the  Rocky  Mountains  extend  in  Wyoming  and 
Montana  ?  In  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  ?  Which  is  the  principal 
mountain  range  in  Washington  and  Oregon?  What  is  it  called  in  Cal- 
ifornia ?  What  mountain  ranges  along  the  coast  ?  In  what  states  ? 
What  great  river  breaks  through  the  Cascade  Mountains?  Which  are 
its  two  chief  branches  ?  Through  what  territories  does  the  Colorado 
flow?     What  two  rivers  form  it?     What  branch  near  its  mouth? 

Montana. — Which  are  the  two  chief  rivers  of  Montana  ?  What  pro- 
posed railroad  will  cross  it?  What'town  is  the  capital?  What  town 
south  of  Helena  ?     In  what  part  of  the  territory  are  most  of  the  towns  ? 

Wyoming. — What  mountain  range  in  the  western  part  of  Wyoming? 
What  peak  in  this  range  ?  What  river  in  the  southeastern  part  of  this 
territory?  What  park  is  mostly  in  Wyoming?  In  what  part?  What 
lake  in  the  park  ?  What  railroad  crosses  this  territory  ?  In  what  part  ? 
What  town  is  the  capital  ? 

Colorado. — What  four  natural  parks  are  in  Colorado  ?  Which  is 
the  largest?  What  mountain  peaks  in  this  state?  What  river  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  this  state?  What  railroad  enters  Colorado  from 
Kansas?  What  city  is  the  capital?  What  two  towns  west  of  Denver? 
What  river  drains  the  western  part  of  the  state?  On  which  side  of  the 
parks  are  most  of  the  towns  ? 

New  Mexico. — What  river  passes  through  New  Mexico  ?  What  two 
proposed  railroads  cross  this  territory  ?  What  town  is  the  capital  ? 
What  town  southwest  of  Santa  ¥6  ? 

Idaho. — Which  is  the  chief  river  of  Idaho  ?  What  town  is  the  cap- 
ital ?    What  town  north  of  Bois^  City  ? 

Nevada. — In  what  part  of  Nevada  are  most  of  the  towns  ?  What 
town  is  the  capital  ?    What  city  north  of  Carson  ? 

Utah. — What  chain  of  mountains  in  the  northeast  of  Utah?  What 
chain  southwest  of  the  Uintah  Mountains  ?  What  lakes  in  this  territory  ? 
What  city  is  the  capital  ?  Near  what  railroad  ?  What  town  north  of  it 
on  the  railroad  ? 

Arizona. — What  two  rivers  cross  Arizona?  What  proposed  rail- 
roads ?  What  canons  in  the  Colorado  River  ?  Where  are  most  of  the 
towns  ?     What  town  is  the  capital  ? 

Alaska.— What  is  the  principal  river  of  Alaska  ?  (See  Map  of  North 
America.)     What  are  the  chief  towns  ?     On  what  islands  ? 

Washington.— What  cape  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Washington  Ter- 
ritory? At  the  entrance,  of  what  strait  ?  In  what  part  of  the  territory 
are  most  of  the  towns  ?  On  what  sound?  What  is  the  capital?  What  city 
east  of  Columbia  River  ?    What  proposed  railroad  crosses  this  territory  ? 

Oregon.— What  two  boundary  rivers  has  Oregon  ?    In  what  part  of 


the  state  are  most  of  the  towns?     What  city  is  the   capital?    What 
city  north  of  Salem  ?    On  what  river?    Of  what  river  is  it  a  branch? 

California. — Which  is  the  chief  mountain  range  in  California  ?  What 
peak  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  ?  What  two 
peaks  near  their  southern  extremity  ?  Which  is  the  largest  lake  in  the 
state  ?  Which  are  the  two  chief  rivers  ?  Through  what  famous  valley 
does  a  branch  of  the  San  Joaquin  flow  ?  What  river  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  state  separates  the  Cascade  Mountains  from  the  Sierra 
Nevada  ?  What  strait  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  ? 
What  city  is  the  capital?  What  city  nearly  south  of  S.acramento? 
North  of  Sacramento  ?  Northeast  of  Sacramento  ?  West  of  Stockton  ? 
West  of  Oakland  ?  South  of  Oakland  ?  North  of  Oakland  ?  What 
two  towns  on  the  southern  coast? 


■  »     m     >  ■ 


LXI. 

EEVIEW  EXERCISES. 


States  and  Territories. — Ifow  bounded?    What  is  the  capital 'i    The 

largest  city  ? 


ROOKY  MOUNT'S  DIVISION. 

BASIN  DIVISION. 

PACIFIC  DIVISION. 

states  or 
TerritorieB. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Pop.  in 

1880. 

states  or 
Territories. 

Area  in 
Sq..Mile«. 

Pop.  in 

1880. 

states  or 
Territories. 

Area  in 
Sq.Milea. 

Pop.  in 
1680. 

Montana  T .,.. 
lVj'omht£^  y.  ... 

Colorado 

Ne7v  Mexico  T. 

144,000 
98,000 
106,000 
121,000 

39,157 
20,788 
194,649 
118,4a0 

IdahoT 

Nevada 

Utah  T. 

A  rizowi  T... .. 

80,000 
104,000 

84,500 
114,000 

32,011 
02,265 
143,907 
40,441 

Alaska  T. 

IVashitigton  T. . 

Oregon 

California 

577,000 
70,000 
96,300 

189,000 

30,146 
76,120 

174,767 
Sf4,086 

Cities  and  Towns. — In  what  part  of  the  state  i    How  situated  i 

Helena  ?    Virginia  City  ? 

Cheyenne? 

Denver?     Central  City?     Georgetown? 

Santa  F£?     Albuquerque? 

Boise  City?     Idaho  City? 

Carson  ?     Virginia  City  ? 

Salt  Lake  City?     Ogden  City? 

Prescott  ? 

Sitka  ?     St.  Paul  ? 

Olympia  ?    Walla  Walla  ? 

Salem  ?    Portland  ? 

Sacramento  ?  San  Francisco  ?  Oakland  ?  Stockton  ?  San  Josd  ? 
Grass  Valley?    Vallejo?     Los  Angeles?     Marysville?     San  Diego? 

Mountains. —  Where  are  they  ? 

Rocky?  Wind  River?  Uintah?  Wahsatch  ?  Cascade?  Sierra 
Nevada  ?  Coast  ranges  ?  Fremonts  Peak  ?  Pikes  Peak  ?  Mount 
Shasta?     Mount  Tyndall?     Mount  Whitney ?     Mount  Lincoln? 

Rivers. —  Where  does  it  rise .?  In  what  direction  does  it  flow  f  Through 
what  states  ?    Into  what  body  of  water  ? 

Missouri  ?  Yellowstone  ?  Colorado  ?  Gila  ?  Green  ?  Grand  ?  Sacra- 
mento?   San  Joaquin?    Klamath?    Columbia?    Snake?    ClarkesFork? 

Lakes. —  Where  is  it? 

Yellowstone  ?    Great  Salt  ?    Tulare  ?    Utah  ? 


WESTERN     STATES. 


LXII. 

WESTERN  STATES:  ROOKY  MOUNTAIN  DIVISION. 

1.  Surface. — This  group  contains  the  great  water-shed 
of  North  America. 

The  Rocky  Mountains,  one  of  the  highest  ranges  in  North  America, 
under  various  names,  cover  the  greater  part  of  this  division. 

'9 


The  Great  Plains  constitute  the  eastern  part  of  the  group,  and  ex- 
tend to  the  base  of  the  mountains. 

2.  The  most  important  valleys  enclosed  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains  are  the  four  parks  of  Colorado. 

Some  of  these  are  as  large  as  Connecticut  or  New  Jersey.  In 
the  front  range  or  eastern  wall  of  the  parks  are  several  peaks 
over  14,000  feet  high.     The  great  central  chain  of  the  Rocky 


60 


WESTERN    STATES:    ROCKY    MOUNTAIN    DIVISION. 


GEYSER   OF   THE   YIiLLUW.'>TU.NE, 


Mountains,  known  as  the  Sierra  Madre  or  National  range, 
reaches  a  great  elevation  on  the  west  side  of  the  parks.  From 
the  top  of  Mount  Lincoln  the  eye  sweeps  over  a  wilderness  of 
high  peaks,  at  least  two  hundred  of  which  are  nearly  13,000 
feet,  and  not  less  than  twenty-five  over  14,000  feet  high. 

3.  Rivers. — The  only  navigable  rivers  are  the  Missouri 
and  the  Yellowstone  in  Montana. 

The  snow  on  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  lofty  mountain  ranges, 
melting  under  the  summer  sun,  is  an  unfailing  supply  to  the 
rivers  during  the  months  of  drought.  These  rivers  are  invalua- 
ble as  means  of  irrigation. 

4.  Climate. — The  mildness  of  the  winter  climate  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  especially  in  the 
North  and  far  into  British  America,  is  a  remarkable  fact 
in  the  physical  geography  of  this  group.  It  is  of  exceed- 
ing importance  in  relation  to  the  settlement  of  these  re- 
gions. 

Notwithstanding  the  latitude  and  the  elevation,  the  climate  grows 
milder  and  the  snow  disappears  from  the  plains  as  we  approach 
the  great  range.  This  will  probably  be  in  the  future  the  great 
grazing  region  of  the  continent.  Cattle  unhoused  can  live  all 
winter  upon  the  rich  grass  that  covers  these  plains.  They  have 
for  ages  been  the  feeding-ground  of  millions  of  buffaloes.  The 
immense  herds  of  these  valuable  wild  animals  will  probably  soon 
be  exterminated. 

Timber  is  scarce  except  on  the  slopes  and  in  the  enclosed  valleys 
of  the  ranges  north  of  Central  Colorado.  Towards  the  south  the 
country  grows  more  and  more  arid,  till  in  New  Mexico  the  land- 
scape is  generally  one  of  desolation. 

5.  Population. — The  entire  population  of  this  group 
in  1880  was  a  little  less  than  three  fifths  of  that  of  Con- 
necticut, which  has  about  one  one-hundredth  of  the  area. 

.6.  Occapations. — Mining  is  almost  the  only  occupa- 
tion, except  in  New  Mexico,  although  agriculture  is  rap- 
idly developing  in  Colorado.  This  group  is  very  rich  in 
metals  and  other  valuable  minerals. 

7.  Alontana. — Montana  is  yet  to  a  great  extent  unex- 


plored.    It  is  known  to  have  a  fine  climate,  much  rich 
soil,  and  great  mineral  wealth. 

It  already  produces  a  large  amount  of  gold. 
Helena  is  the  capital  and  largest  city. 

8.  IWyomin^. — Wyoming    is    almost    as    elevated   as 
Colorado. 

The  Wind  River  Mountains,  the  highest  chain,  contain  the  sources 
of  the  Snake,  the  Missouri,  the  Yellowstone,  the  Platte,  and  the 
Colorado  rivers. 

This  territory  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  Yellowstone  National 
Park,  which  surrounds  Yellowstone  Lake,  and  has  an  area  of 
nearly  3600  square  miles.  Its  deep  canons,  lofty  falls,  and  nu- 
merous bathing-pools,  gey.sers,  and  lakes,  make  it  in  many  re- 
spects the  most  wonderful  portion  of  the  continent,  and  even  of 
the  world.  It  has  been  set  aside  by  Congress  as  a  "  perpetual 
reservation  for  the  benefit  and  instruction  of  mankind." 

Cheyenne  is  the  capital. 

9.  Colorado. — Colorado  contains  the  Great  Parks  and 

the  loftiest  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

It  is  rich  in  mines  of  gold,  silver,  coal,  iron,  and  salt.  The  mount- 
ain "  pineries  "  furnish  a  large  amount  of  lumber.  Grazing  is 
becoming  a  leading  industry.  Irrigation  is  extensively  employ- 
ed in  agriculture.     The  population  is  rapidly  increasing. 

Denver,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  about  5000  feet 
above  the  sea. 

10.  New  Iflexico. — New    Mexico   was   settled   nearly 
three  centuries  ago  (1599)  by  the  Spaniards. 

The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  a  mixed  race,  descended  from  civilized 
Indians  and  the  Spanish  settlers,  and  speak  the  Spanish  lan- 
guage ;  they  are  mostly  in  the  fertile  Valley  of  the  Rio  Grande, 
ai  narrow,  swift,  and  shallow  stream,  nearly  all  the  waters  of 
which  are  consumed  in  irrigation  in  dry  seasons.     The  popula- 


t'lTBK   FALL  OF  THE   YELLOWSTONE. 


WESTERN    STATES:    BASIN    DIVISION. 


Gl 


tion  of  the  territory  has  lately  begun  to  increase  by  immigration. 
The  railway  system  of  Colorado  has  been  extended  into  New 
Mexico,  and  common  schools  have  been  established. 

Santa  Fe,  6840  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  capital  and 
largest  city. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  does  this  group  contain? — 3.  Which  are  the  most  im- 
portant valleys  ? — 3.  Which  are  the  only  navigable  rivers  ? — 1.  What  remarkable  fact 
in  regard  to  climate  ?  Why  important  .'—5.  What  is  said  of  the  population  ? — 6.  What 
is  the  principal  occupation  ?  What  partial  exceptions  ?  In  what  is  this  group  rich  ? 
—7.  What  is  said  of  Montana?  What  is  it  known  to  have?  What  is  the  capital 
and  largest  city?  — 8.  What  is  said  of  Wyoming  ?  What  is  the  capital?  — 9.  For 
what  is  Colorado  noted?  What  is  its  capital  and  largest  city  ?— 10.  When 
and  by  whom  was  New  Mexico  settled  ?  What  is  its  capital  and  largest 
city  ? 

(II.) — 1.  What  mountains  in  this  division  ?    What  is  the 
character  of  the  eastern  part.' — 3.  What  is  the  size  of 
these   parks?     What  peaks    east   of   them?     What 
mountain  chain  west  of  the  parks?     What  is  said 
of  the  view  from  Mount  Lincoln  ? — 3,  What 
the  effects  and  uses  of  the  snow? — 4.  What  i 
the  character  of  this  part  of  the  plains?     To 
what  is  it  best  adapted?     Why?     What  is 
said   of  the  buffaloes?     Wheie    is    timber 
found  ?    What  is  the  character  of  the  coun- 
try towards  the  south  ? — 7.  What  does  Mon- 
tana produce  ? — S.  What  is  said  of  the  high- 
est mountain  chain  of  Wyoming  ?     Of  the 
National  Park  ? — 9.  What  minerals  has  Col- 
orado ?     What  other  industries  ?    What  is 
said  of  its  population? — 10,  Who  are  the 
present  inhabitants  of  New  Mexico  ?  Where 
are  they  ?    What  is  the  character  of  the  Rio 
Grande  ?    What  is  said  of  the  population  ? 
What  is  the  general  condition  of  tliis  ter- 
ritory? 


LXIII. 

WESTEEN  STATES:  BASIN 
DIVISION. 

1.  Hitnation. —  Nevada 
and  the  three  territories  Ida- 
ho, Utah,  and  Arizona  occu- 
py the  central  and  larger  part 
of  the  Great  Basin,  which  is 
nearly  enclosed  by  the  Si- 
erra Nevada,  Cascade,  jind 
Rocky  Mountains. 

2.  Surface. — The  surface 
is  very  rugged  and  uneven. 


extent  of  dry  soil   and   naked   rock,  an  intensely  warm  day  is 
followed,  even  in  midsummer,  by  a  cold  night. 

4.  Vc§:etation. — Timber  is  found  only  on  the  highest 
mountains.  The  brown  sage-bush  in  the  north  and  the 
cactus  in  the  south  are  the  characteristic  vegetation. 

5.  Population.  —  More  than  half  the  population  of 
this  group  of  states  is  in   Utah. 

6.  Occupations. —  The  chief  occupation  in  Utah  is 
agriculture ;  in  the  remaining  regions,  mining. 

7.   Idaho.  —  Idaho  produces  large   amounts   of 
gold  and  silver. 

Boise'  City  is  the  capital. 

Nevada.  —  Nevada  is  remarka- 
ble  for  producing  four  fifths  of 
the  silver  and  more  than  half  of 
the  lead  mined  in  the  United 
States. 

Virginia  City  is  famous  for 
its  rich  mines  of  silver. 

A  single  vein  of  one  of  these 
mines  is  said  to  have  recent- 
ly yielded  over  $22,000,000 
in  fourteen  months. 

Carson  is  the  capital. 

The  towns  are  at  the  silver- 
mines,  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

0.  Utah. — Utah  is  remark- 
able as  the  home  of  the  Mor- 
m.ons,  or  Latter-day  Saints ; 
they  constitute  four  fifths  of 
the  population. 

Their  religion  has  many  pecu- 
liarities, the  most  important 
of  which  is  polygamy.  The 
Mormons  occupy  fertile  val- 
leys at  the  western  base  of 
the  Wahsatch  range,  and 
carry  on  an  extensive  agri- 
culture by  means  of  irriga- 
tion. 


GRAND  CANON  OF  THE  COLORADO. 


Numerous  short  parallel  chains  cover  nearly  the  whole  region. 
The  lofty  Wahsatch  chain  divides  the  high  plateau  of  the  Colo- 
rado, the  waters  of  which  flow  to  the  Gulf  of  California,  from  the 
lower  plateau  of  the  Great  Basin,  where  the  swift  streams  are 
lost  in  salt  lakes  near  the  foot  of  its  mountain  walls. 

3.  Climate.— The  climate  is  exceedingly  dry.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  in  the  south,  where  the  summers  are 
very  hot ;  in  the  extreme  north  the  winter  is  cold,  with 
deep  snows. 

•  The  temperature  is  very  variable.     In  consequence  of  the  great 


Salt  Lake  City  is  the  cap- 
ital and  largest  city. 
10.  Arizona. — -Arizona  and  Southern  California  have 
a  drier  cHmate  than  any  other  part  of  the  United  States. 

The  annual  rain-fall  near  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  is  only  about 
three  inches  ;  that  of  Southern  Alabama  is  sixty-three  inches. 
The  canons  of  the  Colorado  are  the  greatest  and  deepest  river 
gorges  in  the  world.  The  river  is  navigable  to  Callville;  beyond 
this  for  more  than  three  hundred  miles  the  river  and  its  tribu- 
taries flow  with  great  swiftness  through  narrow  chasms  with 
nearly  perpendicular  walls,  and  over  rocky  beds  from  3000  to 
6000  feet  below  the  general  level  of  the  plateau. 


63 


WESTERN    STATES:    PACIFIC    DIVISION. 


Arizona  has  a  small  population.  Its  rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver 
are  as  yet  but  little  worked.  The  Apaches,  "  the  Bedouins  of 
America,"  are  the  most  savage  and  troublesome  Indians  in  the 
United  States. 

Prescott  is  the  capital. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  region  does  this  group  occupy? — 2.  What  is  the  char- 
acter of  the  surface  ? — 3.  Of  the  climate  ?  What  is  the  climate  in  the  south .'  In  the 
north  ? — i.  What  is  the  vegetation  ? — .5.  Where  is  most  of  the  population  ? — 6.  The 
chief  occupation  in  Utah  ?  In  the  remaining  regions  ? — 7.  What  does  Idaho  Territory 
produce  ?  What  is  the  capital  ? — 8.  For  what  is  the  State  of  Nevada  remarkable  ? 
For  what  is  Virginia  City  famous  ?  What  is  the  capital  ? — 9.  For  what  is  Utah  Terri- 
tory remarkable  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ? — 10.  For  what  is  Arizona  Territory  re- 
markable ?     What  is  the  capital  ? 

(II.) — 3.  What  is  said  of  the  mountain  chains  ?  IIow  does  the  Wahsatch  chain 
divide  this  section  ? — 3.  What  is  said  of  the  temperature  ? — 8.  Of  the  amount  of  silver 
yielded  by  a  single  vein  ?  Where  are  the  towns  ? — 9.  What  peculiarity  has  the  religion 
of  the  Mormons  ?  Where  are  the  Mormons  located  .'  What  is  their  chief  occupation  ,' 
— 10.  How  does  the  rain-fall  of  Arizona  compare  with  that  of  Southern  Alabama.' 
What  is  said  of  the  caiions  of  the  Colorado  ?  Of  the  population .'  Of  the  mines .'  Of 
the  Apaches .' 


LXIV. 

WESTERN  STATES:  PAOIFIO  DIVISION. 

1   Surface. — The  lofty  range  known  in  California  as 

the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  in  Oregon  and  Washington  as  the 

Cascade,  passes  through  this  entire  group  of  states. 

It  is  nearly  as  high  as  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  has  fewer  passes. 
East  of  these  mountains  is  a  portion  of  the  great  interior  arid 
plateau  ;  in  Washington  it  is  called  the  Great  Plain  of  the  Co- 
lumbia, and  is  about  2000  feet  above  the  ocean. 

Near  the  coast  is  a  series  of  short,  low  chains,  called 

the  Coast  ranges. 

They  are  parallel  to  the  great  interior  chain.  The  coast  is  very 
bold,  and  without  islands. 

Between  the  high  chains  and  the 
Coast  ranges  are  three  important 
valleys :  the  Valley  of  Puget  Sound, 
in  Washington;  the  Valley  of  the 
Willamette,  in  Oregon ;  and  the  Sac- 
ramento Valley  in  California.  Each 
of  these  is  the  most  fertile  and  im- 
portant part  of  the  state  or  terri- 
tory in  which  it  is  situated. 

2.  Climate.  —  The  climate  west 
of  the  great  mountain  range  is  mild 
and  equable  in  temperature,  but 
has  great  extremes  of  moisture. 

Puget  Sound  has  a  greater  rain -fall 
than  any  other  part  of  the  United 
States  except  Alaska. 

3.  Occupations.  —  Agriculture, 
manufacturing,  mining,  and  lumber- 
ing are  the  leading  pursuits. 

4.  Commerce. —  Internal  com- 


BIG  TKEBS  or  C 


merce,  except  over  the  Pacific  Railroad,  is  quite  limited. 
The  mountains  have  few  passes,  and  there  are  few  rail- 
roads or  navigable  rivers.  The  Columbia  is  navigable  to 
where  it  breaks  through  the  Cascade  Mountains,  and 
again  beyond  them  to  Priest  Rapids ;  its  great  branch,  the 
Snake,  to  Lewiston,  Idaho ;  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joa- 
quin are  navigable  for  a  large  part  of  their  course;  the 
Colorado  is  navigable  more  than  300  miles,  to  Callville,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Grand  Canon. 

5.  Alasi^a. — The  great  territory  of  Alaska,  including 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  was  purchased  of  Russia  in  1867. 

Mountain  chains  extend  along  the  whole  coast  and  through  the 
isiands ;  they  contain  many  volcanoes.  The  area  of  Alaska  is 
over  500,000  square  miles.  The  greater  part  has  a  severe  Arctic 
climate.  The  west  coasts  have  a  mild,  rainy  climate.  The  rain- 
fall at  Sitka  is  about  ninety  inches  a  year ;  there  are  but  few 
clear  days.     In  the  south  are  heavy  forests. 

This  territory  is  unorganized,  and  for  purposes  of  gov- 
ernment is  attached  to  Washington  Territory  as  a  county. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Indians,  Esquimaux,  and  half- 
breeds. 

They  live  on  the  coasts  and  islands,  being  almost  exclusively  de- 
pendent upon  the  fisheries,  which  are  among  the  most  valuable  in 
the  world.    The  skins  of  the  fur-seal  are  the  chief  article  of  export. 

6.  Wasliington. — Washington  is  the  only  organized 
territory  of  the  United  States  having  a  sea-coast. 

In  the  number  and  excellence  of  its  bays  and  harbors  it  is  not 
surpassed. 

The  eastern  half  is  a  grazing  country  ;  owing  to  the  mild  and 
moist  climate,  the  western  half  is  densely  covered  with  valuable 
forests  of  pine  and  cedar.  The  short  streams  falling  into  Puget 
Sound  furnish  exhaustless  water-power.     Coal  is  abundant. 

The  principal  export  is  lumber. 

Olympia  is  the  capital. 

7.  Oreg^on.  —  The  greater  part 
of  the  population  of  Oregon  is  in 
the  fertile  Valley  of  the  Willamette, 
Wool-growing  and  stock-raising  are 
the  principal  occupations. 

The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Co- 
lumbia are  of  great  and  increasing 
importance.  Canned  salmon  is  a 
leading  article  of  export. 

Though  in  the  latitude  of  New  Eng- 
land, cattle  spend  the  winter  in  green 
fields. 

This  state  exports  large  quantities  of 
wheat  and  lumber. 

The  coast  is  deficient  in  harbors,  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  is  ob- 
structed by  a  dangerous  bar. 

Portland,  on  the  Willamette,  is  the 
largest  city.     Salem  is  the  capital. 


WESTERN   STATES:   PACIFIC    DIVISION. 


63 


8.  California.  —  California  produces  more  gold  and 
more  wine  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union.  In  manu- 
factures it  surpasses  every  other  state  west  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  except  Ohio  and  Illinois.  It  contains 
the  great  double  Valley  of  the  Sacramento  and  the  San 
Joaquin,  which  is  connected  with  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  the 
Golden  Gate  at  San  Francisco,  and  with  the  Mississippi 
Valley  by  the  Central  and  Union  Pacific  Railroads. 

The  variety  and  value  of  the  agricultural  and  mineral  riches  of  this 
valley  are  beyond  brief  description,  and  make  California 
a  proverb  for  wealth  and  fruitfulness  throughout  the  ^-='=^ 

world.     The  yield  of  the  vast  gold-fields  of  the      ^,^, 
Sierra  places  California  among  the  first  of 
the  gold -producing  countries  ;  yet  the 
annual  value  of  manufactured  prod- 
ucts already  greatly  exceeds  that 
of     the     mineral    products, 
while   the    results   of  agricult- 
ure    nearly     equal     all     the 
others  together. 

Wheat,  barley,  wine,  and 
fruits  are  excellent  in  qual- 
ity and  wonderful  in  quan- 
tity. The  soil  and  climate 
of  the  southern  part  of 
the  state  are  favorable  to 
the  cultivation  of  the 
orange,  olive,  fig,  almond, 
and  other  tropical  fruits. 
They  are  a'so  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  the  mul- 
berry -  tree,  whose  leaves 
are  the  food  of  the  silk- 
worm. 

The  fertile  soil,  the  equable 
temperature  of  its  climate, 
and  the  succession  of  rainy 
and  dry  seasons  which 
form  its  year,  give  to  Cali- 
fornia the  most  productive 
agriculture  in  the  United 
States. 

The  area  of  the  state  is 
rather  greater  than  that  of 
all  of  the  Atlantic  States 
north  of  the  Potomac. 


San  Francisco,  famous  for  its  magnificent  harbor  and 
its  export  of  gold  and  wheat,  is  the  largest  city  of  the 
Pacific  coast  from  Cape  Horn  to  Japan,  and  is  the  fourth 
city  of  the  United  States  in  foreign  commerce.  Sacra- 
mento is  the  capital. 

San  Francisco  is  at  the  western  end  of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad, 
and  has  an  extensive  and  growing  commerce  with  Europe,  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  and  the  Atlantic  States,  and  with  the  countries 
and  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  A  large  part  of  the  trade  with 
the  Atlantic  States  is  carried  on  by  means  of  ocean  steamers  and 
the  Panama  Railroad.  It  imports  large  quantities  of  tea  and 
r™*==.-_^  silk  from  Japan  and  China  in  exchange  for  grain. 


YOSEMITE   VALLEY. 


Its  population  in  1870,  including  more  than  40,000  Chinese, 
was  but  little  more  than  one  eighth  of  that  of  the  State  of  New 
York. 

The  Big  Trees  and  the  Yosemite  Valley  are  two  of  the 
chief  wonders  of  nature. 

These  trees  are  gigantic  evergreens,  some  of  which  are  more  than 
100  feet  around,  400  feet  high,  and  3000  years  old. 

The  Yosemite  Valley  is  a  remarkable  chasm  ten  miles  long  and 
three  in  greatest  width,  with  perpendicular  walls  of  granite  from 
.3000  to  5000  feet  high,  over  which  the  Merced  River  falls,  in 
three  leaps,  more  than  2000  feet. 
20 


Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  lofty  mountain  range  passes  through 
this  group   of  states?     What   ranges    near   the    coast? 
What  three  important  valleys  between  the  high  chains 
and  the  Coast  ranges?    What  is  said  of  these  val- 
leys ? — 3.  What  characteristics  has  the  climate  west 
of  the  great  range  ?— 3.  What  are  the  leading 
pursuits?— 4.  What  is  said  of  internal  com- 
merce ?    Of  the  mountains  ?    Of  the  railroads 
and  rivers  ?     How  far  is  the  Columbia  nav- 
igable?   The  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin? 
The  Colorado? — 5.  How  was  Alaska  ob- 
tained ?     When  ?     Is  the  territory  organ- 
ized ?     How  is  it  governed?     Who  are 
the   inhabitants? — 6.  In  what   is  Wash- 
ington Territory  peculiar  ?    What  is  the 
principal  export  ?    What  town  is  the  cap- 
ital?— 7  Where  is  most  of  the  population 
of  Oregon  ?    What  are  the  principal  occu- 
pations ?    What  is  said  of  the  salmon  fish- 
eries of  the  Columbia?     Of  canned  sal- 
mon ?    Which  is  the  largest  town  ?     The 
capital  ? — 8.  For  what  is  California  noted  ? 
What  is  its  rank  in  manufactures  ?    W  hat 
important  valley  has  it  ?     By  what  is  it 
connected  commercially  with  the  Pacific  ? 
With  the  Mississippi  Valley  ?     What  is 
the  area  of  this  state?     What  natural 
wonders  does  it  possess  ?     For  what  is 
San   Francisco   famous  ?     What  city  is 
the  capital  ? 

(II.) — 1  How  does  the  Sierra  Nevada 
compare  in  height  with  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains ?  W  hat  is  there  east  of  these  mount- 
ains ?  By  what  name  is  it  known  in 
Washington  Territory  ?  How  high  is  it  ? 
To  what  are  the  low  chains  parallel  ? 
What  is  the  character  of  the  coast? — 
2.  What  is  said  of  the  rain-fall  of  Puget 
Sound  ? — 5.  What  is  the  character  of  the 
coast  and  islands  of  Alaska?  What  is 
its  area?  What  is  the  climate  of  the 
greater  part?  Of  the  west  coasts?  What 
is  the  amount  of  rain  -  fall  at  Sitka  ? 
Where  are  the  forests  ?  Where  do  the 
inhabitants  live?  Upon  what  are  they  dependent?  What  is  the  chief  article  of 
export? — 6.  What  is  said  of  the  bays  and  harbors  of  Washington  Territory?  What 
is  the  character  of  the  eastern  half?  Of  the  western  half?  Of  the  rivers?  What 
mineral  is  abundant? — 7.  How  does  the  climate  of  Oregon  compare  with  that  of  New 
England?  What  articles  are  exported?  What  is  said  of  the  harbors  on  the  coast? 
Of  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  ? — 8.  What  is  said  of  the  agricultural  and  mineral  riches 
of  California?  How  does  California  rank  among  the  gold-producing  countries? 
How  do  the  manufactures  compare  with  the  mineral  products?  How  do  the  agricult- 
ural products  compare  with  the  manufactures  and  the  mineral  products  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  wheat,  barley,  wine,  and  fruits  ?  Of  the  tropical  fruits  ?  Of  the  mulberry-tree  ? 
What  causes  give  California  the  most  productive  agriculture  in  the  United  States? 
How  does  the  population  of  California  compare  with  that  of  the  State  of  New  York? 
Describe  the  Big  Trees.  The  Yosemite  Valley.  What  is  said  of  the  commerce  of 
S.in  Francisco  ?  What  other  trade  route  between  San  Francisco  and  the  Atlantic 
States?     In  what  does  the  trade  with  Japan  and  China  consist? 


64 


COMMERCIAL  UNITED   STATES:    INDUSTRIES.— RAILROAD   AND  WATER   TRANSPORTATION. 


COMMERCIAL    UNITED    STATES. 


LXV. 

INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

I. — 1.  Agriculture,  the  chief  source  of  food,  and  the  basis  of  all  other 
industries,  is  by  fiir  the  most  important  occupation  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States.     The  following  are  the  leading  products. 

2.  Maize  or  Indian  Corn  is  the  principal  grain.  In  some  years  the 
product  has  exceeded  1000  millions  of  bushels.  Comparatively  a  small 
part  is  exported;  the  greater  part  is  used  in  fattening  cattle,  swine,  etc. 

3.  Wheat,  the  chief  bread  grain,  is  the  second  in  quantity  and  in  value. 
The  annual  export  is  greater  than  that  of  all  other  grains,  but  seldom 
exceeds  one  fifth  of  the  product.  Great  Britain  is  the  chief  foreign  pur- 
chaser. A  much  greater  part  is  distributed  to  the  manufacturing,  min- 
ing, and  cotton  districts  of  the  United  States. 

4.  Oafs,  barley,  rye,  Imclm'hcat,  and  rice  are  the  other  grains.  Barley 
is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  beer;  a  considerable  part  of  the 
wheat,  rye,  and  maize  is  converted  into  whiskey. 

5.  Hay  and  Potatoes  are  of  great  total  value,  but  are  too  bulky  to 
pay  for  long  transportation. 

6.  Tobacco  is  a  very  important  product,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  articles 
of  export.     Nearly  half  of  it  is  produced  in  Kentucky. 

7.  Cotton  is  the  largest  and  most  valuable  export  of  the  United  States. 
Great  Britain  buys  much  the  greater  part,  but  large  quantities  are  sent 
to  nearly  every  country  of  Europe.  The  crop  sometimes  exceeds  4 
millions  of  bales,  of  450  pounds  each. 

8.  Sugar  is  a  limited  crop.    Nearly  all  of  it  is  produced  in  Louisiana. 

Note.— Products  in  1870,  and  Leading  States.— J/n/zi',  761  millions  of  bush- 
els ;  Illinois,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Indiana,  and  Kentucky.  —  Wheat,  288  millions  ;  Illi- 
nois, Iowa,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  California. — Oats,  383  millions  ; 
Illinois,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio. — Barley,  30  millions  ;  more  than  one  half 
from  California  and  New  York. — Rye,  17  millions  ;  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Illinois, 
and  Michigan. — Buckwheat,  10  millions  ;  more  than  one  half  from  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania. — Rice,  73  millions  of  pounds  ;  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Louisiana. 
—  Hay,  37  millions  of  tons  ;  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  and  Ohio.  —  Potatoes, 
16.5  millions  of  bushels;  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Illinois. —  Tobacco,^'A 
millions  of  pounds  ;  Kentucky,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Ohio.  —  Cotton,  3  millions  of 
bales ;  Mississippi,  Alabama, Georgia, Texas,  and  Arkansas. — Sugar,  87,000  hogsheads; 
Louisian.i,  Texas,  Tennessee,  and  South  Carolina. 

II. — 1.  Grazing  is  a  department  of  agriculture. 

2.  Butter  and  cheese  are  produced  in  great  quantities  in  the  hay  dis- 
tricts of  the  Middle  Atlantic  and  North  Central  States,  and  are  among 
the  leading  articles  of  export. 

3.  Cattle  2S&  also  raised  for  beef,  hides,  ^x\A  tallow  in  many. parts  of  the 
country,  but  chiefly  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  tlie  Rocky  Mount- 
ains, and  in  the  Pacific  and  North  Central  States. 

4.  Sheep  are  raised  chiefly  for  mutton,  wool,  skins,  and  tallo7a.  Cali- 
fornia, Ohio,  and  Illinois  are  the  leading  states  in  wool-growing. 

5.  Swine  are  raised  iox  pork  and  lard.  The  chief  supply  is  from  the 
maize  country.  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Boston,  New  York,  and 
other  cities  are  extensively  engaged  in  the  packing  oi pork,  lard,  and 
beef.  The  greater  part  is  sent  to  the  cotton  states  and  to  the  mining  and 
manufacturing  districts,  and  there  is  a  large  export  trade  to  Europe,  the 
West  Indies,  and  South  America. 

III. — Forest  products. — Lumber,  turpentine,  and  bark  are  the  chief 
forest  products.  Maine,  North  Carolina,  and  Canada  furnish  the  chief 
supply  of  lumber  for  the  Atlantic  States;  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
Minnesota  for  the  Central;  and  Oregon  and  Washington  for  the  Pacific 
States.  Turpentine  is  obtained  from  the  Carolina  pine-forests.  The 
bark  of  the  oak  and  the  hemlock  is  of  great  value  for  tanning. 

IV. — Fishing. — The  New  England  States  furnish  the  chief  supply  of 
cod,  mackerel,  herring,  shad,  salmon,  and  lobsters.  Besides  these  varie- 
ties are  oysters  from  the  Chesapeake,  white-fish  from  tiie  Great  Lakes, 
and  salmon  from  the  Pacific  coast. 

V. — 1.  Minerals. — Coal  and  iron  are  the  most  important  of  minerals. 
In  these  two  substances  the  United  States  is  the  richest  country  in  the 


world.  The  chief  deposits  of  coal  are  found  in  a  broad  belt  extending 
from  Maryland  and  Eastern  Pennsylvania  to  Kansas  and  Nebraska. 
There  are  also  valuable  deposits  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  princi- 
pal iron-mines  are  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  on  the  borders  of 
Lake  Superior,  and  in  Missouri.  Pennsylvania  exceeds  all  other  states 
in  the  production  of  both  coal  and  iron.  The  production  and  the  man- 
ufacture of  iron  are  among  the  most  important  industries  of  the  United 
States,  especially  in  the  Ohio  Valley  and  in  Missouri. 

2.  Petroleum  is  supplied  chiefly  by  western  Pennsylvania.  The  refined 
oil,  known  as  kerosene,  is  one  of  the  leading  exports,  and  is  sent  to  near- 
ly every  civilized  country. 

3.  In  the  production  oi  gold  and  silver 'Cn^  United"  States  surpasses 
every  other  country  in  the  world.  The  chief  supply  is  obtained  from  the 
Western  Highland.  It  is  nearly  all  exported.  California  produces  the 
greatest  amount  of  gold  and  Nevada  of  silver. 

4.  Among  the  other  important  mineral  products  are  copper  from 
Northern  Michigan  ;  lead  from  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Missouri ;  and  salt 
from  New  York,  Michigan,  West  Virginia,  and  Louisiana. 

VI. — Manufactures.  —  The  principal  manufacturing  district  of  the 
United  States  lies  east  of  the  Appalachians,  and  between  Portland  and 
Baltimore.  The  second  district  is  in  the  North  Central  States.  The 
leading  manufactures  of  the  several  states  have  already  been  described. 

Questions.     I. — 1.  What  is  said  of  agriculture  ? — %  Which  is  the  principal  grain  ? 

What  is  said  of  it .' — 3.  Which  grain  is  second  in  importance?  What  is  said  of  the 
export  ?  What  country  is  the  chief  purchaser .'  How  is  the  rest  distributed  ? — 4.  Name 
the  other  grains  in  the  order  of  their  importance.  What  is  the  chief  use  of  barlev.' 
What  grains  are  in  part  converted  into  whiskey .' — 5.  What  is  said  of  hay  and  potatoes .' 
—6.  Of  tobacco  ?— 7.  Of  cotton  ?— 8.  Of  sugar .' 

II. — 1.  What  is  said  of  grazing  ? — 3.  Of  butter  and  cheese  ? — 3.  For  what  other  pur- 
poses are  cattle  raised  ?  Where.' — 4.  Which  are  the  chief  sheep  products?  The  prin- 
cipal wool  states .' — h.  The  chief  swine  products  ?     What  is  said  of  the  packing  trade  ? 

III. — Name  the  leading  forest  products.  Name  the  chief  sources  of  the  supply 
of  lumber.     Of  turpentine.     What  barks  are  used  in  tanning? 

IV. — Where  are  the  chief  supplies  of  fish  obtained? 

V. — 1.  Which  are  the  most  important  of  minerals  ?  What  is  said  of  the  coal  and 
iron  of  the  United  States?  Where  are  the  chief  coal  deposits?  The  principal  iron- 
mines?  Which  is  the  leading  state  in  co.tl  and  iron  ?  What  else  is  said  of  the  iron 
industry? — 3.  What  is  said  of  petroleum?  Of  kerosene? — 3.  Of  gold  and  silver.? — 
4.  What  is  said  of  the  other  important  mineral  products? 

VI. — Where  is  the  principal  manufacturing  district  ?    The  second  district  f 


LXVI. 

TEANSPORTATION. 

RAILROADS.  I. — The  principal  railroads  of  the  United  States  are 
called  trunk  lines,  and  may  be  divided  into  Eastern,  Central,  Southern, 
and  Western.  Trunk  lines  are  usually  long,  and  bear  almost  the  same 
relation  to  the  less  important  roads  that  a  main  river  does  to  its  branches. 

II. — Eastern  Trunk  Lines.  —  The  principal  eastern  trunk  lines  lie 
chiefly  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States.  They  are  five  in  number,  and  are 
of  leading  importance  in  the  railway  system  of  the  United  States.  Tlie 
greater  part  of  the  surplus  products  of  the  northern  half  of  the  Mississip- 
pi Valley  finds  its  way  to  a  market  over  the  last  four  of  these  lines. 

1.  Grand  Trunk— from  Portland,  through  Montreal  and  Toronto,  to  De- 
troit (801  m.).     It  lies  mostly  in  Canada. 

2.  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River — from  Albany,  through  Utica, 
Syracuse,  and  Rochester,  to  Buff"alo  (298  m.).  At  Albany  it  forks 
into  two  important  lines — the  Hudson  River  Railroad  to  New  York 
(142  m.),  and  the  Boston  and  Albany  to  Boston  (201  m.). 

3.  New  York,  Lake  Erie,  and  Western — from  New  York,  through  Elmira 
and  Hornellsville,  to  Buffalo  (424  m.),  with  a  branch  to  Dunkirk. 

4.  Pennsylvania — from  Philadelphia,  through  Harrisburg  and  .Altoona, 
to  Pittsburgh  (3,54  m.).  The  New  Jersey  Railroad,  from  Philadelphia 
to  New  York  (90  m.),  is  its  eastern  extension. 


RAILROAD    AND  WATER   TRANSPORTATION. 


65 


5.  Baltimore  and  Ohio — from  Baltimore,  through  Cumberland,  to  Par- 
kersburg,  with  a  branch  through  Wheeling  to  Chicago  (852  m.). 

III.— Central  Trunk  Lines.  —  These  lines  lie  in  the  North  Central 
States.     Among  many  important  lines  the  following  are  prominent: 

1.  Michigan  Central— from  Detroit,  through  Jackson  and  Kalamazoo, 
to  Chicago  (284  m.).     Extension  of  the  principal  Canada  roads. 

2.  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern— from  Buffalo,  through  Erie, 
Cleveland,  and  Toledo,  to  Chicago  (539  m.).  Extension  of  Neiv 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River,  New  York,  Lake  Erie,  and  Western,  etc. 

3.  Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western  — from  Toledo,  through  Fort  Wayne, 
Logansport,  Lafayette,  and  Springfield,  to  Hannibal,  Mo.,  and  Quincy, 
111.  (474  m.).     Extension  oS.  Lake  Shore. 

4.  Atlantic  and  Great  Western — from  Salamanca,  through  Mansfield 
and  Dayton,  to  Cincinnati  (448  m.).  Extension  ol  New  York,  Lake 
Erie,  and  Western. 

5.  Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  — from  Pittsburgh,  through 
Mansfield  and  Fort  Wayne,  to  Chicago  (468  m.).  Extension  of 
the  Pennsylvania. 

6.  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis,  or  "  Pan  -  Handle  Route  " — 
from  Pittsburgh,  through  Columbus,  to  Cincinnati,  and  through 
Richmond  to  Indianapolis.  Continued  in  the  St.  Louis,  Vandalia, 
Terre  LLaute,  and  Indianapolis  Road,  through  Terre  Haute  to  St. 
Louis  (619  m.).     Extension  of  the  Pennsylvania. 

V.  Marietta  and  Cincinnati  and  Ohio  and  Mississippi  — from  Parkers- 
burg,  through  Cincinnati,  to  St.  Louis  (545  m.).  Extension  oi  Balti- 
more and  Ohio. 

8.  Illinois  Central— from  Cairo,  through  Central ia,  to  Chicago  (365  m.), 
and  through  Bloomington  to  Dubuque  (450  m.). 

9.  Chicago  and  Alton — from  Chicago,  through  Bloomington,  Springfield, 
and  Alton,  to  St.  Louis  (280  m.). 

IV.— Southern  Trunk  Lines.— These  include  most  of  the  lines  of 
the  South  Atlantic  and  South  Central  States. 

1.  A  line  from  Washington  through  Lynchburg  and  Knoxville  to  Chat- 
tanooga ;  the  Piedmont  Air  Line,  from  Richmond  through  Greens- 
boro to  Atlanta ;  and  a  series  of  railways  which,  under  many  names, 
connect  all  the  Atlantic  and  river  ports  from  Savannah  to  Norfolk, 
and  may  be  traced  northwardly  through  all  the  great  ports  to  Portland. 

2.  In  the  second  group  are  lines  extending  westward  from  Charleston, 
Savannah,  and  other  southern  Atlantic  ports,  and  crossing  the  Mis- 
sissippi at  New  Orleans,  Vicksburg,  and  Memphis. 

3.  The  third  group  includes  lines  extending  north  and  south  from 
Louisville  to  Mobile,  Memphis,  and  New  Orleans  ;  from  St.  Louis  and 
Columbus,  Ky.,  to  New  Orleans  and  Mobile  ;  and  from  Evansviile, 
through  Nashville  and  Montgomery  to  Motjile,  and  through  Chat- 
tanooga and  Atlanta  to  the  southern  Atlantic  ports. 

The  chief  business  of  these  lines  is  the  exchange  of  the  cotton  and 
other  products  of  the  South  for  the  manufactures  and  imports  of  the 
Northern  and  Central  Atlantic  States,  and  the  breadstuffs,  provisions, 
and  manufactures  of  the  country  north  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Missouri. 

v.— Western  Trunk  Lines.— These  include  all  the  roads  west  of  the 
Mississippi.  A  single  line,  the  Pacific  Railroad,  extends  from  San 
Francisco  to  Omaha  (1914  m.),  and  thence  by  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island, 
and  Pacific,  and  other  roads,  to  Chicago  (493  m.).  A  branch,  the  Kansas 
Pacific,  from  Cheyenne,  passes  through  Denver  to  Kansas  City,  and 
thence  by  the  Missouri  Pacific  and  the  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and 
Northern  to  St.  Louis  (1024  m.). 

The  roads  of  Texas  and  Colorado  are  important  as  cattle  roads  or  as 
cotton  roads.     California  and  Oregon  also  have  important  lines. 

Note.— Five  other  Pacific  railroads  have  been  proposed — one  through  Canada 
from  Ottawa  to  New  Westminster  ;  another,  the  Northern  Pacific,  from  Du- 
luth  on  Lake  Superior,  has  been  completed  as  far  as  Bismarcl<  on  the  Upper 
Missouri  (448  miles)  ;  a  third,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  has  been  completed 
from  St.  Louis  to  Vinita ;  a  fourth,  the  South  Pacific,  from  Vicksburg,  has 
advanced  a  few  miles  ;  a  fifth,  the  International,  has  been  completed  from  St. 
Louis  through  Little  Rock  to  Austin  in  Texas — it  is  proposed  to  extend  it 
first  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  thence  to  some  Mexican  port  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
21 


WATER-WAYS.  VL— The  interior  water-ways  of  the  United  States 
are  the  Atlantic  System,  the  Mississippi  System^  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  Canals. 

1.  Atlantic  System.— The  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  system  are  connected 
With  the  extensive  coasting  trade.  They  are  navigated  by  thousands 
of  sailing  vessels  and  steamers.  A  fall  or  a  rapid  at  the  head  of 
navigation  is  usually  the  seat  of  a  manufacturing  city  or  town. 

Note.— The  tides  of  the  ocean  cause  the  surface  of  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic 
system  to  rise  and  fall  a  few  feet  twice  a  day.  The  entrances  of  these  rivers 
are  more  or  less  obstructed  by  broad  banks  or  shoals  of  mud  and  sand, 
brought  down  by  the  rivers  and  deposited  in  the  sea  just  at  their  mouths. 
The  shoals  are  called  bars.  They  frequently  make  it  dangerous  and  some- 
times impossible  for  vessels  to  enter  even  at  high  tide.  Most  of  the  rivers 
between  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Rio  Grande  can  be  entered  only  by 
vessels  of  very  light  draught.  In  1874  the  water  was  about  fifteen  feet  deep 
on  the  bar  of  the  Mississippi. 

2.  Mississippi  System.— The  Mississippi  River  is  said  to  have  more 
than  1500  navigable  branches.  Numerous  steamboats  and  barges 
furnish  cheap  transportation  for  the  bulky  products  of  the  valley. 
The  importance  of  this  system  is  very  great,  and  rapidly  increasing. 
The  water  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  has  recently  been  deep- 
ened, so  as  to  admit  the  largest  ocean  steamers. 

Note.— The  Mississippi  system  furnishes  more  than  20,000  miles  of  steam  navi- 
gation. The  waters  of  the  great  river  and  its  branches  are  subject  to  great 
changes  of  level,  in  consequence  of  the  annual  floods  and  droughts.  Below 
the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  the  Mississippi  sometimes  rises  more  than  fifty  feet. 
At  low  water  some  of  the  branches  can  be  navigated  only  by  steamers  of 
light  draught,  and  some  not  at  all  for  several  months. 

3.  The  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes.— The  Great  Lakes  are  fresh- 
water seas,  and  are  traversed  by  a  great  number  of  sailing  vessels  as 
well  as  numerous  large  steamers.  Like  the  noithern  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Mississippi  systems,  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Lakes 
are  closed  for  several  months  by  ice,  but  are  not  affected  by  tides, 
floods,  or  droughts. 

4.  Canals. — The  Great  Lakes  are  connected  with  the  Mississippi  and 
Atlantic  systems  by  canals.  The  Erie  Canal  in  New  York  is  the 
only  one  of  any  present  importance.  A  short  ship-canal  in  Michigan 
enables  vessels  to  pass  the  falls  at  the  entrance  of  Lake  Superior. 
The  Falls  of  Niagara  and  the  rapids  in  the  St.  La>wrence  are  passed 
by  means  of  ship-canals  in  Canada. 

Note. — A  number  of  important  ship-canals  have  recently  been  proposed  :  one 
to  connect  the  Hudson  and  Lake  Champlain  with  the  St.  Lawrence,  others  to 
connect  the  Ohio  with  the  James  and  the  Potomac,  the  Tennessee  with  the 
Alabama  and  the  Altamaha,  the  Illinois  and  the  Wisconsin  with  Lake  Michi- 
gan, and  the  Minnesota  River  with  the  Red  River  of  the  North. 

Qnestioiis.  I. — What  are  trunk  lines  ?  How  may  the  trunk  lines  of  the  United 
States  be  divided .'     What  is  said  of  them  ? 

II. — Where  are  the  principal  eastern  trunk  lines.'  How  many  are  there.'  Name 
them.  Why  important? — Describe  the  following  roads.* — 1.  Grand  Trunk? — 3.  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River  ? — 3.  New  York,  Lake  Erie,  and  Western  ? — 1.  Penn- 
sylvania?    New  Jersey.' — 5.  Baltimore  and  Ohio? 

HI. — Where  are  the  central  trunk  lines?  Name  the  most  important  of  these 
lines.  Describe  them.*  —  1.  Michigan  Central?  —  2.  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern? — 3.  Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western? — 4.  Atlantic  and  Great  Western? — 
.f;.  Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago.' — C.  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis? — 
7.  Marietta  and  Cincinnati?  Ohio  and  Mississippi.' — 8.  Illinois  Central.' — 9.  Chicago 
and  Alton  ? 

IV. — What  do  the  southern  trunk  lines  include? — 1.  Describe  the  first  group. — 
2.  The  second. — 3.  The  third.     What  is  the  chief  business  of  these  lines? 

V. — What  do  the  western  trunk  lines  include?  Describe  the  Pacific  Rail- 
road. What  is  s.iid  of  the  roads  of  Texas  and  Colorado  ?  Of  California  and 
Oregon  ? 

VI. — How  are  the  interior  water-ways  of  the  United  States  divided  ? — l.With  what 
trade  are  the  Atlantic  rivers  connected?  By  what  navigated?  Of  what  is  a  fall  or 
rapid  at  the  head  of  navigation  usually  the  seat? — 3.  What  is  said  of  the  branches  of 
the  Mississippi  ?  By  what  navigated  ?  What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  the  system  ? 
Of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi? — 3.  Of  the  Great  Lakes?  What  effect  has  winter 
upon  all  the  northern  water-ways? — 4,  How  are  the  first  three  systems  connected? 
Which  is  the  most  important  of  these  canals?    Where  are  the  ship-canals? 


*  Ask  the  following  questions  about  each  of  these  roads :    In  what  state  or  states  ?    Between  and 
through  what  cities?    With  what  other  trunk  lines  connected? 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

What  great  railroad  terminates  at  Portland  ? 
Through  what  country  does  it  pass?  What  lake- 
port  of  Michigan  is  at  its  western  end  ?  What  rail- 
road in  the  central  part  of  the  state  of  New  York  ? 
Between  what  two  cities  is  it  ?  Which  of  these  is  a 
lake-port  ?  What  road  connects  Albany  with  Bos- 
ton? With  New  York?  What  road  in  the  southern 
part  of  New  York  ?  What  sea-port  at  its  eastern 
end?  What  lake-port  at  its  western  end?  What 
road  between  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh  ?  Balti- 
more and  Wheeling  ?  What  is  the  general  direction 
of  these  five  great  roads : 


What  lake-port  is  the  chief  railroad  centre  of  Illi- 
nois? What  road  connects  Chicago  with  Detroit? 
Of  what  great  eastern  road  is  tlie  Michigan  Central  an 
extension  ?  What  road  connects  Chicago  with  Buffalo? 
Through  what  other  lake-ports  does  the  Lake  Shore 
and  Michigan  Southern  pass  ?  With  what  two  great 
railways  does  it  connect  in  New  York  ?  What  road 
from  Chicago  to  Pittsburgh  passes  through  Fort 
Wayne  ?  Of  what  Pennsylvania  road  is  it  a  continua- 
tion ?  Wliat  road  from  Chicago  i>asses  through  Wheel- 
ing to  Baltimore?  What  road  from  Pittsburgh  runs 
through  Columbus  and  Indianapolis  to  St.  Louis  ? 
To  what  other  port  on  the  Ohio  has  it  a  branch  from 
Columbus?     What  road  from  Toledo  passes  through 


Springfield,  Illinois?  To  what  two  cities  on  the  Mis  I 
sissippi?  What  road  runs  north  from  Cairo?  When! 
does  it  fork?  In  what  city  does  the  eastern  brand j 
terminate?  The  western  branch?  What  road  con 
nects  St. Louis  with  Chicago?  With  Indianapolis  ant! 
Pittsburgh  ?    With  Cincinnati  ?  | 

What  road  connects  Chicago  with  Omaha?  Witl| 
what  western  road  does  it  connect?  What  road  con  | 
tinues  the  Union  Pacific  still  farther  west?  Wha  j 
sea-port  at  the  western  end  of  the  Central  Pacific  ! 
What  road  extends  east  from  Denver  ?  At  what  citjj 
does  a  branch  from  Denver  join  the  Union  Pacific! 
What  citv  on  the  Missouri  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Kansas  Pacific  ?     What  large  city  on  the  Mississippi 


[Cvf'vrigAl,  ISU, 


from     Greeuiriji;li.  9, 


from.       ^Vnsliijij^t 


is  connected  by  railroad  witli  Kansas  City?  What 
road  rims  southwest  from  St.  Louis  ?  To  what  gulf- 
port  does  it  form  part  of  a  line?  What  other  road 
forms  part  of  a  line  from  St.  Louis  and  Cairo  to  Gal- 
veston ?  Through  what  states  does  the  International 
road  run  ?     At  what  city  does  it  terminate  ? 

What  road  runs  south  from  Richmond?  To  what 
port?  Between  Richmond  and  Atlanta?  Norfolk 
and  Chattanooga?  Louisville  and  Memphis?  Louis- 
ville and  Mobile  ?  Cairo  and  New  Orleans  ?  Mobile 
and  Cairo?     Memphis  and  Charleston? 

What  color  on  this  map  shows  how  far  a  river  is 
navigable?  In  which  half  of  the  United  States  are 
nearly  all.  the  navigable  rivers  ?     Nearly  all  the  rail- 


roads?  Why  can  most  of  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  be  ascended  only  a  short  distance  ?  In  what 
part  of  the  United  States  are  the  longest  navigable 
rivers  ?  Name  the  chief  navigable  rivers  of  the  North 
Atlantic  States.  Of  the  Middle  Atlantic.  The  South 
Atlantic.  The  South  Central.  The  North  Central. 
The  West  Central.  What  rivers  of  the  western  half 
of  the  United  States  are  partly  navigable?  Which  is 
the  most  important  navigable  river  of  Canada? 

What  three  states  contain  nearly  all  the  canals? 
{Alew  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio.)  Which  is  the 
principal  canal  ?  ( The  Erie.)  What  waters  does  it 
connect?  What  other  canals  are  connected  with  the 
Hudson  River  ?     ( 77/1?  Champlain  and  Hudson  and 


the  Delaware  and  Hudson.)  What  port  on  Lake  On- 
tario is  at  the  mouth  of  a  branch  of  the  Erie  Canal  ? 
On  Lake  Erie  at  the  mouth  of  the  Erie  Canal  ?  At 
the  mouth  of  a  canal  from  Pittsburgh  ?  From  Ports- 
mouth, Ohio  ?  From  Cincinnati  ?  From  Evansville  ? 
How  many  canals  connect  the  Ohio  River  with  Lake 
Erie?  What  river  of  Illinois  is  connected  by  canal 
with  Lake  Michigan  ?     At  what  port  ? 

Note. — It  is  proposed  to  unite  the  following  waters  by  ship- 
canals  :  A.  (see  map)  Lake  Champlain  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 
B.  Ottawa  River  and  Georgian  Bay.  C.  Lake  Ontario  and  Geor- 
gian Bay.  D.  James  River  and  the  Kanawha.  E.  The  Tennes- 
see River  and  the  Ocmulgee.  F.  The  Tennessee  and  the  Ala- 
bama. G.  The  Wisconsin  and  the  Fox.  H.  The  Minnesota  and 
the  Red  River  of  the  North. 


68 


BRITISH   AMERICA:    QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP.— REVIEW    EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 


LXVII. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

Oeneral. — What  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  is  a  peninsula  ? 
What  one  north  of  Nova  Scotia  is  an  island  ?  What  one  is  west  of 
Prince  Edward  Island?  Northwest  of  New  Brunswick?  West  of 
Quebec  ?  What  district  west  of  Ontario  ?  What  province  southwest 
of  Kewaydin  ?  On  the  Pacific  ?  What  territory  west  of  Kewaydin  ?  What 
one  east?  What  is  the  capital  of  the  Dominion?  {Oitawa.)  Where 
situated  ?     What  large  island  east  of  the  Dominion  ?     (JVewfoundland.) 

Nova  Scotia. — What  island  in  the  eastern  part  of  Nova  Scotia  ? 
What  four  capes  on  the  coast  ?  What  bay  west  ?  What  city  is  the 
capital  ?     What  town  on  Northumberland  Strait  ? 

Prince  Edward  Island. — What  waters  surround  Prince  Edward  Isl- 
and ?     What  town  is  the  capital  ? 

New  Brunswick. — What  three  boundary  rivers  has  New  Brunswick  ? 
Which  is  the  principal  river  ?  What  cities  on  it  ?  What  bay  on  the 
north?     On  the  south  ?     What  city  is  the  capital  ? 

Quebec. — In  the  valley  of  what  river  does  the  Province  of  Quebec 
lie  ?  What  river  separates  Quebec  from  Ontario  ?  What  branch  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  is  the  outlet  of  Lake  Champlain  ?  Name  the  two  chief 
cities  on  the  St.  Lawrence.     Which  is  the  capital  ? 

Ontario. — What  lakes  border  on  the  Province  of  Ontario  ?  In  what 
part  is  the  peninsula  ?  What  bay  north  of  the  peninsula  ?  What  lake 
in  the  peninsula?  What  cities  on  or  near  Lake  Ontario?  Which  is 
the  capital  ?     What  city  southwest  of  Hamilton  ? 

Manitoba. — What  river  crosses  Manitoba  from  the  south  ?  What  is 
the  capital  of  this  province  ? 

British  Columbia. — What  mountains  form  part  of  the  eastern  bound- 
ary of  British  Columbia?  What  is  the  capital  ?  Which  is  the  principal 
river  ?  What  islands  on  the  coast  ?  What  waters  surround  Vancouver 
Island  ?     What  town  on  Frazer  River  ? 

Northwest  Territory,  Kewaydin,  and  Northeast  Territory.  —  What 
river  flows  into  Winnipeg  Lake  from  the  west  ?  What  is  the  capital  of 
Northwest  Territory  ?  What  large  lakes  are  mainly  in  the  District  of 
Kewaydin  ?     What  rjver  separates  Northeast  Territory  from  Ontario  ? 


Newfoundland. — What  waters  surround  Newfoundland  ?    What  city 
is  the  capital  ?     What  capes  on  the  coast  ?    What  small  islands  south? 


LXVIII. 

REVIEW  EXEEOISES. 

Countries. —  Where  is  it?    How  bounded  1     What  is  the  capitaH 


Provinces. 

Nova  Scotia 

Prince  Edward 

New  Biunswick 

Quebec 

Manitoba 

British  Columbia 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 


22,000 
2,100 

27,000 
193,000 

14,000 
390,000 


Population 
in  1871. 


Provinces. 


388,000,  Ont.ii-io 

94,00o| 

28(),000: 

1,192,000 

12,000 

45,000 


District    of  Keway- 
din 
Northwest  Territory 
Northeast  Territory 
Newfoundland 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 


2,858,000 


40.200 


Population 
in  1S71. 


1,689,000 
147,000 


Cities  and  Towns. — Tn  what  part  of  the  province?  How  situated? — 
Ottawa?  Halifax?  Pictou?  Frederickton  ?  St.  John?  Char- 
lotte Town?  Quebec?  Montreal?  Toronto?  Hamilton?  Lon- 
don ?  Kingston  ?  Winnipeg  ?  New  Westminster  ?  Victoria  ?  St- 
Johns  ?    Battleford  ? 

Islands. —  Where  situated  ? — Newfoundland?  St.  Pierre?  Miquelon? 
Prince  Edward  ?     Cape  Breton  ?     Vancouver  ?     Queen  Charlotte  ? 

Capes.  —  From  what  coast  does  it  project?— 'R.ac&}  Bauld  ?  Ray? 
North?     Canso?     Sable?     Breton? 

Gulfs  and  Bays. — Where  is  it ?~St.  Lawrence?  Fundy?  Chaleur? 
Georgian  ?     Georgia  ? 

Straits. — Between  what  lands  ?  What  waters  does  it  connect  ? — Belle 
Isle?     Northumberland?    Juan  de'Fuca?     Queen  Charlotte  Sound? 

Rivers. —  Where  does  it  rise?  In  what  direction  does  it  flmv?  Into 
what  body  of  water  ? — St.  John?  St.  Lawrence?  Richelieu?  Ottawa? 
Saskatchawan  ?  Frazer?  St.  Croix?  Restigouche?  Red  River  of 
the  North  ? 

Lakes. — Where  situated?  What  outlet  ? — Winnipegoos  ?  Winnipeg  ? 
Manitoba  ?     Simcoe  ? 


BRITISH    AMERICA. 


LXIX. 

CANADA  AND  NEWFOUNDLAND:  DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Divisions. — British  America  comprises  about  one 
third  of  the  continent  of  North  America,  together  with 
many  adjacent  islands.  Its  chief  divisions  are  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada  and  the  Province  of  Newfoundland. 

Besides  these  there  are  the  Bermudas,  the  Bahamas,  Jamaica,  and 
many  other  colonies  in  the  West  Indies. 

2.  The  Dominion  or  Canada  has  an  area  of  about 
three  and  a  half  million?  of  square  miles,  or  nearly  the 
same  as  that  of  the  United  States.  Its  population  is 
nearly  four  millions. 

It   is  a  confederation,  consisting  of  the   provinces   of  Quebec, 
Ontario,  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island, 


British  Columbia,  and  Manitoba,  Northwest  Territory,  the  Dis- 
trict of  Kewaydin,  and  Northeast  Territory.  Newfoundland  is 
not  included  in  the  confederation. 

3.  (iiovernnient. — The  chief  executive  officer  is  the 
Governor-General,  who  is  appointed  by  the  sovereign  of 
Great  Britain.  The  Legislature  consists  of  two  branches. 
The  members  of  the  lower  branch  are  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple ;  the  members  of  the  other  branch  are  appointed  by 
the  Governor-General.  Each  province  has  a  similar  gov- 
ernment under  a  Lieutenant-Governor. 

4.  Climate. — The  winter  climate  is  severe,  except  in 
the  southern  parts  of  British  Columbia  and  of  Ontario. 

5.  Snrracc. — British  Columbia  and  the  provinces  east 
of  Manitoba  are  great  forest  regions.  Between  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Manitoba  are  extensive  prairies. 


IQ^yrifJU,  ]t)1.5,  bj/  Harper  A   BrotA*rt.} 


ro 


BRITISH   AMERICA:   DOMINION   OF   CANADA  AND   NEWFOUNDLAND. 


bl.    LAWRENCE   RIVER. 


6.  Commercial  rentes. — The  chief  commercial  water 
route  is  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  above  Montreal,  and  the  falls  of 
the  Niagara  and  St.  Marys  rivers,  are  passed  by  means  of  canals ; 
the  St.  Marys  Canal  is  in  the  United  States. 

The  Grand  Trunk  Railroad  passes  from  the  southern  part  of 
Ontario  through  the  chief  cities  and  down  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
Quebec,  with  a  branch  to  Portland,  Maine.  In  winter  the  com- 
munication of  the  interior  with  the  ocean  is  through  the  United 
States. 

*I.  Trade. — The  principal  trade  of  the  provinces  is  with 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The  chief  exports 
are  fish,  coal,  grain,  and  lumber. 

8.  Nova  Scotia. — Nova  Scotia  has  many  good  har- 
bors and  valuable  fisheries,  and  exports  sheep,  coal,  and 
gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris.  Halifax,  the  capital  and 
largest  city,  is  an  important  British  naval  station. 

9.  Prince  Edward  Island. — Prince  Edward  Island 
has  a  fertile  soil,  and  agriculture  is  the  leading  occupa- 
tion.    Charlotte  Town  is  the  capital. 

10.  'Xew  Brnnswick. — New  Brunswick  is  noted  for 
its  timber  forests.  Its  chief  exports  are  lumber  and  fish. 
St.  John  is  the  principal  city.     Frederickton  is  the  capital. 

11.  Qnebec. — The  Province  of  Quebec  is  noted  for 
its  picturesque  scenery  and  severe  climate. 

Montreal,  the  chief  city,  and,  after  Chicago  and  Buffalo, 
the  largest  in  the  St.  Lawrence  basin,  has  an  extensive 
commerce,  and  exports  a  large  amount  of  grain  to  Europe. 
Quebec,  the  capital,  is  the  second  city  in  population,  and 
has  a  larsfe  maritime  commerce. 

12.  Ontario. — Ontario  produces  a  great  amount  of 
grain  and  lumber.  Toronto,  the  capital  and  largest  city, 
has  a  fine  harbor  and  a  large  lake  trade. 


13.  Manitoba.  —  Manitoba  has  a  small 

population.     Winnipeg  is  the  capital  and 

chief  town. 

The  Red  River  of  the  North,  a  navigable  stream 
flowing  from  the  United  States,  is  the  best  wa- 
ter-way to  the  province.  It  is  connected  through 
Winnipeg  and  other  large  lakes  with  the  Sas- 
katchawan  River.  Together  they  furnish  more 
than  2000  miles  of  inland  navigation  through 
one  of  the  most  fertile  sections  of  the  continent. 

14.  British  Columbia. — British  Colum- 
bia abounds  in  timber,  coal,  gold,  and  other 
metals.  New  Westminster  is  an  important 
town.     Victoria  is  the  capital. 

British  Columbia  can  be  reached  from  the  other 
provinces  only  by  a  journey  through  San  Fran- 
cisco or  by  sea  around  the  continent :  its  chief 
commercial  interests  are  therefore  with  the  Pa- 
cific States.  It  is  proposed  to  connect  British 
Columbia  with  Ontario  or  with  the  head  of  Lake 
Superior  by  a  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad. 

15.  Northwest  Territory,  Kewaydin,  anil  North- 
east Territory.  —  These  are  extensive  districts.  The 
number  of  inhabitants  is  small,  but  is  gradually  increas- 
ing by  emigration  from  Europe. 

16.  Newfoundland. — Ne^vfoundland  is  a  sterile,  rocky 
island,  and  has  a  bold  and  broken  coast.  The  ocean  fish- 
eries are  almost  the  only  source  of  support  to  the  inhab- 
itants.    The  chief  exports  are  cod-fish,  seal-skins,  and  oils. 

The  fish  are  caught  near  the  coasts,  and  in  shallow  places  in  the 
sea,  which  are  called  banks.  During  a  large  part  of  the  year 
the  coasts  and  the  banks  are  covered  with  dense  fogs. 

St.  Johns  is  the  capital  and  chief  town. 

Its  population  varies  from  10,000  during  the  winter  to  25,000  or 
even  30,000  during  the  fishing-season. 

Labrador,  a  name  properly  applied  only  to  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  peninsula,  belongs  to  Newfoundland.  Its  fisheries  find  em- 
ployment for  about  1000  small  vessels  and  30,000  men. 

Questions  (1.) — 1.  What  does  British  America  comprise  ?  Wh.nt  are  its  chief 
divisions  ?— 2.  What  is  the  area  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  ?  Its  population?— 
3.  Describe  the  government— 4.  The  climate.— 5.  The  snrface.— 0.  What  is  the  chief 
commercial  water-route :?— 7.  With  what  countries  is  the  principal  trade  of  the  prov- 
inces ?  What  are  the  chief  exports  ?— 8.  What  is  s.aid  of  Nova  Scotia  ?  Halifax  ?— 
9.  Of  Prince  Edward  Island  ?  What  is  the  capital  .'—10.  For  what  is  New  Brunswick 
noted?  Wh.nt  are  its  chief  exports?  What  is  the  principal  city ?  The  capital?— 
U.  For  what  is  the  Province  of  Quebec  noted?  Montreal?  The  city  of  Quebec ?— 
12.  What  are  the  productions  of  Ontario?  For  what  is  Toronto  noted?— 13.  What  is 
the  population  of  Manitoba  ?  What  is  the  capital .'— U.  In  what  does  British  Columbia 
abound  ?  What  important  town  ?  The  capital  ?— ir..  What  are  Northwest  Territory, 
Kewaydin,  and  Northeast  Territory  ?— 16.  What  is  Newfoundland  ?  What  is  the  charac- 
ter of  the  coast  ?     What  is  the  principal  business  ?    The  chief  exports  ?    The  capital  ? 

(11 )— 1.  What  other  colonies  has  British  America?— 3.  What  is  the  Dominion  of 
Canada?  Of  what  does  it  consist  ?  What  large  island  is  not  included  in  the  confed- 
eration'—6  What  is  said  of  the  rapids  and  falls  in  the  rivers  of  this  route?  What 
railroad  forms  another  great  commercial  route?  What  is  ihe  channel  of  trade  in  the 
winter'— 13  Wh.at  is  said  of  the  Ked  River  of  the  North ?-14.  With  what  states  are 
the  chief  commercial  interests  of  British  Columbia?  What  connection  with  the  Great 
Lakes  is  proposcd?—16.  Where  are  the  fishing-grounds  of  Newfoundhand  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  fogs  ?  Of  the  population  of  St.  Johns  ?  To  what  province  does  Labrador 
belong?    What  is  said  of  its  fisheries? 


MEXICO;   CENTRAL   AMERICA. 


il 


MEXICO;  CENTRAL   AMERICA;  WEST   INDIES. 


[For  Sections  LXX.  and  LXXI.,  see  page  73.] 


LXXII. 

MEXICO:  DESOEIPTION. 

1.  Area    and    Popnla- 

tion. — The  area  of  Mexico 
is  about  one  eighth  less  than 
that  of  all  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
population  is  about  9,000,000. 

2.  SnrfUce.  —  The  great 
plateau  of  North  America 
covers  most  of  the  country, 
the  highest  part  being  near 
the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec. 

The  plateau  is  here  crossed  by 
a  line  of  thhteen  volcanoes, 
which  are  among  the  loftiest 
in  the  world  ;  Popocatepetl 
and  Orizaba  are  over  17,000 
feet  in  elevation,  and  their 
tops  are  covered  with  snow. 

3.  Climate. — Mexico  has 
the  greatest  possible  variety 
of  climate:  cold  on  the  high 
mountains,  temperate  on  the  plateaus,  and  hot  and  moist 
on  the  coast. 

The  plateaus  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  are  dry  and  barren, 
like  those  of  the  United  States.  Those  south  of  the  tropic  have 
four  months  of  tropical  rains. 

4.  Inhabitants. — The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  in  the 
southern  half  of  the  country,  and  consist  of  Indians,  mixed 
races,  and  Spanish  Creoles. 

The  Creoles  are  descendants  of  the  early  Spanish  settlers,  and  form 
only  a  small  part  of  the  population. 

5.  Commerce.— The  foreign  commerce  is  limited,  and 
is  mostly  with  England  and  the  United  States. 

There  are  but  few  common  roads,  only  one  important  railroad,  and 
no  navigable  rivers.  The  best  harbors  are  on  the  coast  of  the 
Pacific. 

6.  Gorernment.  —  Mexico  is  a  federal  republic  of 
twenty-seven  states,  one  territory,  and  one  federal  district. 
It  was  for  three  centuries  the  most  important  colony  of 
Spain. 

7.  Mexico,  the  capital  and  chief  city,  is  beautifully 
situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  7500  feet  above  the  sea,  and 

23 


POPOCATEl'liTL,    -MhXlLU. 


surrounded  by  lofty  mount- 
ains. Leon,  Guadalaxara, 
Puebla,  and  Guanaxuato  are 
large  cities  on  the  table-land ; 
Vera  Cruz  and  Acapulco  are 
the  principal  ports.  The 
chief  exports  are  silver,  dye- 
woods,  cochineal,  and  vanilla. 

The  mines  of  Mexico  were  the 
chief  source  of  the  world's 
supply  of  silver  for  nearly 
three  hundred  years. 

Questions  (I.)— 1.  What  is  the  area 
of  Mexico  ?  The  population  ? — 2.  What  is 
said  of  the  surface.' — 3.  Of  the  climate.' — 
4.  Where  are  most  of  the  inhabitants  ?  Of 
what  do  they  consist .' — .5.  What  is  said  of 
the  foreign  commerce  .' — (!.  Describe  the 
government.  Of  what  country  was  Mexico 
once  a  colony? — 7.  What  is  the  capital  and 
chief  city?  How  situated?  What  other 
important  cities?  What  are  the  principal 
ports  ?    What  are  the  chief  exports  ? 

(II.) — 2.  'By  what  is  the  southern  part 
of  the  plateau  crossed?  —  3.  What  is  the 
climate  of  the  plateaus  north  of  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer  ?  South  of  it  .'—4.  Who  are  the 
Creoles? — 5.  What  is  said  of  the  roads,  riv- 
ers, and  harbors?— 7.  What  is  said  of  the 
silver-mines? 


LXXIII. 

CENTEAL  AMEEICA. 


Republics. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

Republics. 

Area  in    t  „       ... 
„     ,,.,       Population. 

Sq.  Miles.  |      ^ 

Guatemala 

San  Salvador 

Honduras 

40,800 

7,400 

47,100 

1,180,000 
600,000 
350,000 

58,200 
21,. 500 
13,500 

400,000 

165,000 

26,000 

Costa  Rica 

Balize  (Colony) 

1.  Central  America,  as  a  natural  division,  is  a  long 

isthmus.     It  includes  the  smaller  isthmuses  of  Panama  in 

South  America  and  Tehuantepec  in  Mexico. 

It  is  chiefly  important  because  it  contains  the  principal  routes  con- 
necting the  commerce  of  the  two  great  oceans. 

2.  As  a  political  division  it  includes  five  independent 
republics,  which  are  really  military  despotisms :  viz.,  Guate- 
mala, Honduras,  San  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa 
Rica,  together  with  Balize,  or  British  Honduras,  which  is 
a  colony  of  Great  Britain. 

3.  These  republics  are  similar  to  Southern  Mexico  in 
surface,  climate,  productions,  population,  and  social  con- 
dition. 


8  I^oiigituUe    W«st  fruia    3     'WaHUiiigti 


\l-uptp^ghl,   ltl1&,  6j/  Uarftr  ils   /trvinrr»,X 


WEST   INDIES:    DESCRIPTION.— QUESTIONS  ON   THE  MAP.— REVIEW  EXERCISES. 


73 


The  Andes  Mountains  extend  the  entire  length  of  the  isthmus, 
and  connect  the  mountains  of  South  America  and  the  Sierra 
Madre.     They  abound  in  volcanoes. 

4.  There  are  no  navigable  rivers  except  the  San  Juan. 

This  river  and  Lake  Nicaragua,  of  which  it  is  the  outlet,  have  been 
proposed  as  the  chief  part  of  a  ship-canal  between  the  oceans. 

5.  The  foreign  commerce  is  very  limited,  and  is  mostly 
with  England.  Coffee,  rubber,  indigo,  cochineal,  cabinet- 
woods,  and  dye-woods  are  the  chief  exports. 

6.  The  capitals  of  the  several  republics  are  Guatemala, 
San  Salvador,  Tegucigalpa,  Managua,  and  San  Jose, 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  Central  America?  What  does  it  include.' — 2.  What 
does  it  include  as  a  political  division?  Name  the  republics. — 3.  In  what  are  they 
similar  to  Mexico  ? — 4.  What  is  said  of  the  rivers  ? — 5.  Of  the  foreign  commerce  ? 
Which  are  the  most  important  exports? — 6.  Name  the  capitals  of  the  five  republics. 

(II.) — I.  Why  is  Central  America  important.' — 3.  What  are  its  principal  mount- 
ains ?     What  is  said  of  them  ? — 4.  Why  is  the  San  Juan  River  important  ? 


THE  WEST  INDIES. 

1.  Situation. — The  West  Indian  Archipelago  extends 

from  Florida  to  South  America. 

The  islands  are  the  summits  of  mountain  ranges  which  are  partly 
under  the  sea,  and  parallel  to  the  great  chains  of  the  western 
continents. 

2.  Area. — The  land  surface  of  the  archipelago  is  about 
equal  to  that  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 

3.  Divii^ioiis.  —  The    Bahamas,  the  Greater  Antilles, 
and  the  Lesser  Antilles  are  the  three  principal  divisions. 

The  Bahamas  are  low  coral  islands.  One  of  them,  San  Salvador, 
is  said  to  be  the  first  land  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492. 


The  Greater  Antilles  have  forest-clad  mountains  and  a  fertile  soil. 
The  Lesser  Antilles  include  all  the  islands  between  Porto  Rico 
and  South  America  ;  several  of  them  contain  lofty  volcanoes. 

4.  Climate. — All  these  islands,  except  a  portion  of  the 
Bahamas,  are  in  the  Torrid  Zone.  The  intense  heat  of 
the  tropical  climate  is  modified  by  the  ocean  and  the 
trade-winds. 

5.  Productions.  —  The  principal  exports  are  sugar, 
coffee,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  tropical  fruits.  Most  of  the 
fruits  come  from  Cuba,  which  is  also  the  chief  sugar-pro- 
ducing country  of  the  world. 

6.  Ownership. — Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  are  colonies  of 
Spain ;  Jamaica,  the  Bahamas,  and  most  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  belong  to  Great  Britain;  the  rest  to  France  and 
other  European  countries.  Hayti  was  once  divided  be- 
tween France  and  Spain;  it  now  consists  of  two  inde- 
pendent negro  republics — Hayti  and  San  Domingo. 

7.  Population. —  The  total  population  of  the  West 
Indies  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
the  greater  part  being  negroes. 

8.  The  three  largest  cities,  Havana,  Matanzas,  and  San- 
tiago de  Cuba,  are  all  iri  Cuba.  Havana,  the  capital  of 
Cuba,  is  larger  than  any  six  other  cities  in  the  West  Indies. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  Where  is  the  West  Indian  Archipelago? — 2.  What  is  its  area? 
— 3.  Name  its  principal  divisions. — 4.  In  what  zone  are  they?  What  is  said  of  the 
climate? — 5.  What  are  the  principal  exports?  For  what  is  Cuba  noted? — 6.  To  what 
countries  do  the  West  Indies  belong?  To  what  two  countries  did  Hayti  once  belong? 
Of  what  does  it  now  consist  ? — 7.  What  is  said  of  the  population  of  the  West  Indies  ? — 
8.  Where  are  the  three  largest  cities  ?    Name  them.     What  is  said  of  Havana  ? 

(II.) — 1.  What  are  the  islands  of  the  West  Indian  Archipelago? — 3.  What  is  said 
of  the  Bahamas?    Of  San  Salvador  ?    Of  the  Greater  Antilles?    Of  the  Lesser  Antilles? 


LXX. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

Mexico.— What  country  north  of  Mexico?  What  country  southeast? 
What  gulf  in  the  northwest  ?  What  peninsula?  What  gulf  east  ?  AVhat 
bay?  What  peninsula  in  the  southeast?  What  isthmus  in  the  southern 
part  of  Mexico  ?  What  gulf  ?  What  mountain  chain  extends  through 
Mexico  ?  What  river  forms  part  of  the  northeast  boundary  ?  What 
city  is  the  capital  ?  Name  the  seaports  of  the  eastern  coast.  Of  the 
Pacific  coast.  What  city  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  ?  What 
city  southeast  of  Mexico  ?  What  three  northwest  ?  What  two  in  the 
northern  part  of  Mexico  ? 

Central  America. — Name  the  divisions  of  Central  America.  Which 
is  farthest  south  ?  Farthest  north  ?  What  British  colony  northeast  of 
Guatemala  ?  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  bay  north  of  Honduras  ? 
What  name  is  given  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Nicaragua?  What  two 
lakes  in  Nicaragua  ?  What  is  the  outlet  of  Lake  Nicaragua  ?  Name 
the  capital  of  each  state. 

West  Indies. — What  are  the  three  principal  divisions  of  the  West  In- 
dies ?  {Greater  Antilles,  Lesser  Antilles,  and  the  Baltafnas.)  Name  the 
four  Greater  Antilles.  Which  is  the  largest  group  of  the  Lesser  Antilles? 
What  group  near  the  coast  of  South  America?  What  small  group  east 
of  Porto  Rico  ?  What  islands  north  of  Cuba  ?  What  town  is  their  cap- 
ital? On  what  island?  What  city  is  the  capital  of  Cuba?  What  city 
east  of  Havana?  On  the  southern  coast?  What  strait  between  Cuba 
and  Florida?     Between  Cuba  and  Yucatan  ?     Cuba  and  Hayti  ?    What 


two  countries  in  Hayti  ?  Name  their  capitals.  What  strait  separates 
Hayti  from  Porto  Rico?  What  is  the  capital  of  Porto  Rico?  What 
island  nearly  west  of  Hayti  ?    Its  capital  ?    What  other  city  in  Jamaica  ? 


LXXI. 

EEVIEW  EXERCISES.  .  -^ 

Countries. —  Where  is  it  t  How  bounded  1  What  is  the  capital  1 — 
Mexico  ?  Balize,  or  British  Honduras  ?  Guatemala  ?  Honduras  ? 
San  Salvador?     Nicaragua?     Costa  Rica?     San  Domingo?     Hayti? 

Islands.— rf7/^«  wVwa/^-^?— The  Greater  Antilles?  Cuba?  Hayti? 
Porto  Rico?  Jamaica?  The  Bahamas?  The  Lesser  Antilles?  Virgin 
Islands  ?     Caribbee  Islands  ?     Venezuelan  Islands  ? 

Gulfs  and  Bays. —  Where  is  it  1 — California?  Mexico?  Campeachy? 
Honduras?     Tehuantepec? 

Straits. — Between  what  lands  ?  What  waters  does  it  connect  ? — Yuca- 
tan ?     Florida?     Windward?     Mona? 

Cities  and  Towns. — In  what  part  of  the  state  ?  How  situated  1— 
Mexico?  Leon?  Guadalaxara?  Puebla?  Guanaxuato?  Vera  Cruz? 
Tampico?  Matamoras?  Guaymas?  Acapulco  ?  Guatemala?  San 
Salvador  ?  'J'egucigalpa  ?  Managua  ?  San  Jos£  ?  Havana  ? 
Santiago  de  Cuba?  Matanzas?  Port  au  Prince?  San  Domingo? 
Kingston?     Spanish  Town?     San  Juan ?    Nassau?    Balize?. 


24 


iMDgitwlo     13     West 


{O^PlfrigAt,  1675,  bj/  Uarptr  d  BroCAert.l 


PHYSICAL    SOUTH    AMERICA. 


LXXV. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

Through  what  part  of  South  America  does  the  Equator  pass?  In 
what  zone  is  the  greater  part  of  the  continent?  What  tropic  crosses 
it  ?  What  cape  at  its  northern  extremity  ?  Its  eastern  extremity  ? 
Southern  ?     Western  ? 

Along  which  coast  is  the  belt  of  highest  mountains  and  narrow 
plateaus  ?  What  name  is  given  to  the  broadest  part  of  the  plateau  of 
the  Andes  ?  What  lakes  in  it  ?  What  broad  plateau  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  continent  ?  What  mountain  ranges  in  this  plateau  ?  What 
smaller  plateau  in  the  north  ?  What  mountains  are  in  the  plateau  of 
Guiana?     In  what  part  of  South  America  are  the  volcanoes? 

AVhat  name  is  given  to  the  northern  part  of  the  Great  Central  Plain? 
With  what  are  they  covered?  W'hat  river  drains  the  llanos?  What 
name  is  given  to  the  central  part  of  the  Great  Plain  ?  With  what  are 
they  covered?  What  river  drains  the  selvas?  What  island  at  its 
mouth?  What  river  east  of  Joannes  Island?  What  name  is  given  to 
the  southern  part  of  the  Great  Plain  ?  What  river  drains  a  large  part 
of  the  pampas  ? 

What  branch  of  the  Amazon  is  connected  with  the  Orinoco?  What 
branches  drain  the  plateau  of  Brazil  ?  What  branch  of  the  Para?  What 
river  drains  the  eastern  part?  What  two  the  southern  part?  Which 
of  these  is  the  main  river  ?     What  name  is  given  to  the  forest  region 


between  the  Paraguay  and  the  Madeira  ?  To  the  plain  between  the 
Matto  Grosso  and  the  pampas?  Where  is  the  rainless  coast?  How 
long  is  it? 

What  metals  are  obtained  from  the  Andes?  What  two  valuable 
minerals  from  the  plateau  of  Brazil  ?  How  many  principal  diamond 
districts  ?  What  valuable  woods  are  obtained  from  the  forests  of  the 
Amazon  and  its  branches  ?  What  gum  ?  What  vegetable  productions 
from  the  northern  coast  ?  From  the  eastern  coast  ?  What  grain  from 
the  southwestern  coast  ?  What  animal  products  from  the  pampas  and 
Southern  Brazil  ?  What  valuable  manure  from  the  rainless  coast  ? 
From  what  islands  is  it  obtained  ? 

Note. — It  will  assist  to  memorize  the  physical  maps  of  both  the  American  con- 
tinents to  note  the  following  points  of  similarity : 

Shape  of  continents.    Position  of  the  three  coast  lines.    Volcanoes  on  the  west. 

Rocky  and  Nevada  Mountains.  Appalachian  Mountains.  Western  Plateau  Belt 
Andes  chains.  Brazilian  Mountains.  Andes  Plateau  Belt. 


Great  Basin. 
Plateau  of  Bolivia. 


Great  Salt  Lake. 
Lake  Titicaca. 


Labrador. 
Plateau  of  Guiana. 


Eastern  Highland.     Central  Plain.     Arctic  Plain.     Great  Lakes.     Southern  Plain. 
Plateau  of  Brazil.       Central  Plain.      Llanos.*  Selvas.t  Pampas.} 

Mackenzie  River.     Nelson.       St.  Lawrence.     Mississippi. 
Magdalena.  Orinoco.     Amazon.  La  Plata. 

*  Llanos,  a  Spanish  word  meaning  plains,     t  Selvas,  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  woods.    %  Pampas^ 
an  Indian  word  meaning  plains.     El  Gran  Chaco,  means  the  great  hunting-ground. 


-Andes  Moimtains 


,  ..     Z.Tuicaea 


,S1,S90/«<I 


20,000 


25 


PROFILB   SECTION    OF   SOUTH    AMERICA. 


S.ESPrNHACO 

SfHlO  ftet 


76 


PHYSICAL  SOUTH  AMERICA:   OUTLINE,  SURFACE,  AND  CLIMATE. 


DESCRIPTION. 


LXXVI. 

OUTLINE,  SUEFAOE,  ETC. 

1.  Outline. — South  America  is  nearly  a  right-angled 
triangle,  of  which  the  Pacific  coast  is  the  longest  side.  It 
is  nearly  twice  the  size  of  the  United  States,  and  has  a 
population  of  about  27,000,000. 

Its  coasts  are  unbroken  by  great  gulfs  or  by  enclosed  seas. 

2.  SnrfUce. — The  surface  of  South  America  is  natural- 
ly divided  into  four  parts — the  Andean  plateau  on  the 
west,  the  plateaus  of  Brazil  and  Guiana  on  the  east,  and 
the  Great  Central  Plain.  The  Andes  Mountains  stretch 
along  the  entire  western  coast,  generally  in  parallel  chains. 
Between  them  is  a  belt  of  plateaus,  the  broadest  and 
loftiest  being  that  of  Bolivia. 

These  gigantic  border  walls  of  the  plateaus  are  the  loftiest  ranges 
in  America,  and  are  exceeded  in  height  only  by  the  great  chains 
of  Central  Asia.  They  are  highest  in  the  northern  portion  of 
the  table-land  of  Bolivia,  where  the  loftiest  peaks  reach  an  eleva- 
tion of  25,000  feet.  They  are  unbroken,  except  at  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  where  the  western  chain  subsides  into  low  hills,  and 
towards  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent,  where  the 
mountainous  coast  becomes  a  line  of  rocky  islands.  The  Andes 
contain  several  groups  of  lofty  volcanoes. 

3.  The  Great  Central  Plain  extends  along  the  whole 
eastern  base  of  the  Andes. 

This  plain  extends  eastwardly  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  except 
where  interrupted  by  the  low  mountains  and  plateaus  of  Guiana 
and  Brazil. 

Three  great  rivers,  the  Orinoco,  the  Amazon,  and  the 
La  Plata,  with  their  numerous  branches,  drain  this  plain 
and  the  mountain  slopes  which  surround  it. 

The  remarkable  rain-fall  of  this  region  is  due  to  the  tropical  rain- 
belt  and  the  trade-winds  which  sweep  westwardly  from  the  At- 
lantic and  across  the  continent. 

4.  The  northern  part  of  the  Great  Central  Plain,  the 
llanos  of  the  Orinoco,  is  treeless  and  very  flat.  It  is 
about  four  times  the  size  of  Ohio. 

At  the  close  of  the  tropical  rainy  season  it  is  a  vast  meadow,  and 
is  called  by  the  inhabitants  the  "  Sea  of  Grass." 

It  supports  millions  of  cattle  and  horses.  Before  the  end  of  the 
dry  season  it  has  become  a  scorched  and  arid  desert,  swept  by 
hot  winds  that  whirl  the  dry  soil  into  the  air  in  dense  clouds  of 
dust.  During  the  extreme  drought  the  horses  and  cattle  are 
driven  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  the  great  reptiles  with 
which  the  plain  abounds  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  of  the  dry- 
ing pools,  and  await  in  a  torpid  state  the  return  of  the  tropical 
rains. 


5.  The  central  part,  the  selvas  of  the  Amazon,  is  by 
far  the  largest. 

It  is  nearly  covered  with  a  dense  forest  of  flowering  trees,  inter- 
woven with  gigantic  vines,  and  alive  with  birds  and  insects  of 
brilliant  colors,  and  with  millions  of  monkeys  and  other  animals 
of  the  Torrid  Zone ;  it  is  almost  unoccupied  by  civilized  man, 
and  can  be  traversed  only  by  means  of  the  rivers.  This  great 
forest,  the  largest  in  the  world,  also  spreads  far  up  the  sides  of 
the  mountains  by  which  the  plains  are  surrounded. 


MONKEYS    AND    CROCODILE. 


6.  The  southern  part,  the  pampas  of  the  La  Plata,  is 
more  than  three  times  as  large  as  the  llanos. 

It  is  similar  to  the  llanos  in  many  respects,  but  is  far  colder  to- 
wards the  south.  It  supports  vast  herds  of  cattle  and  millions 
of  sheep  and  horses.  These  animals  constitute  the  chief  wealth 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  llanos  and  the  pampas,  and  determine 
their  principal  occupations  and  exports. 

7.  Climate. — The  greater  part  of  South  America  lies 
within  the  tropics,  where  its  broad  plains  have  a  hot  and 
moist,  and  therefore  sickly  climate. 

The  great  moisture  is  caused  not  only  by  the  trade-winds  and 


PHYSICAL  SOUTH  AMERICA:  CLIMATE,  VEGETATION,  AND    ANIMALS. 


77 


BOA    CONSTRICTOR 


iil^'^^,'^"\  VTiJ^^TOM  C 


'  f^ 


'?^. 


/#^^ 


Si:      ,7 

m 


^"'^^'•# 


f  :^>i:  "\ 


tropical  rains,  but  by  the 
evaporation  from  the  large 
amount  of  river  surface 
and  from  the  immense 
area  covered  by  vegeta- 
tion. 

The  high  and  cool  ta- 
ble-lands of  the  Andes 
are  noted  for  their  health- 
ful climate. 

Partly  for  this  reason,  they 
contain  a  large  part  of  the 
civilized  inhabitants  of  the 
continent,  and  a  remark- 
able line  of  elevated  cap- 
ital cities,  which  are  from 
one  to  two  miles  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean. 

The  extreme  southern 

part  of  the  continent, west 

of  the  Andes,  is  shrouded 

in  clouds  and  drenched 

with  rains. 

These  rains  are  caused  by 
the  counter  trade -winds 
of  the  South  Pacific.  The 
arid  plains  east  of  the 
Patagonian  Andes  are 
swept  by  violent  cold 
winds  from  the  icy  sum- 
mits of  the  mountains. 
Farther  to  the  north 
these  plains  are  warmer, 
but  their  streams  dry  up 
or  end  in  salt  lakes  instead 
of  reaching  the  ocean. 


About  one  half  of  the  western  coast  is  a  dry  desert. 

The  trade-winds  from  the  east,  in  crossing  the  Andes  south  of  the 
Equator,  become  extremely  dry,  and,  passing  down  to  the  Pacific, 
cause  a  rainless  coast  nearly  two  thousand  miles  long.  A  large 
district  of  the  high  plateau  of  Bolivia  is  called  "  the  Despo- 
blado,"  or  "  the  Uninhabited,"  from  the  dryness  and  severity  of 
its  climate. 

Vegetation. — The  richness  and  variety  of  the  trop- 
ical vegetation  are  indescribable.  The  dense  forests  of 
the  plains  and  mountains  abound  in  India-rubber  and  palm 
trees,  and  in  rose-wood,  mahogany,  and  dye-woods.  Other 
products,  such  as  coffee,  cocoa,  indigo,  tapioca,  cotton,  and 
sugar,  are  limited  only  by  the  amount  of  labor  and  cultiva- 
tion bestowed  upon  them. 

9.  Animals. — Among  the  remarkable  animals  are  the 
llama,  a  beast  of  burden,  and  the  alpaca  of  the  Andes; 
they  are  something  like  small  camels.  Besides  these 
are  the  puma,  the  jaguar,  and  the  monkey,  the  boa,  the 
condor,  the  nandu,  or  American  ostrich,  the  penguin,  and 
the  humming-bird.  Insects  are  more  numerous  and 
brilliant  than  in  any  other  continent.  Horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep  were  introduced  from  Europe. 

Questions  (I.)— 1.  What  is  the  shape  of  South  America?  Its  area?  Population? 
—2.  Into  how  many  parts  is  its  surface  divided?  What  are  they?  What  is  said  of 
the  Andes  Mountains?  What  is  between  them? — 3.  What  is  said  of  the  Great  Central 
Plain  ?  How  is  this  plain  drained  ?— 4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  Great  Central  Plain  ?  What  is  it  called  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  llanos?  What 
is  its  area  ?— 5.  Which  is  the  largest  part  ?  What  is  the  central  part  called  ?  What  is 
the  meaning  of  selvas  ? — li.  What  is  the  area  of  the  southern  part  ?  What  is  it  called  ? 
What  is  the  meaning  of  pampas  ?— 7.  What  is  the  climate  of  the  greater  part  of  South 
America  ?  Of  the  table-lands  of  the  Andes  ?  Of  the  southern  part  of  the  continent  ? 
Of  the  western  coast?— 8.  What  is  said  of  the  vegetation?  In  what  do  the  forests 
abound  ?  What  is  said  of  other  products  ?— 9.  Which  are  the  most  remarkable  ani- 
mals ?     What  is  said  of  the  insects  ?    Of  the  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  ? 

(II.)— 1.  What  is  the  character  of  the  coasts  of  South  America  ?— 3.  What  is  said 
of  the  Andes  Mountains?  Where  are  they  highest?  How  high  are  the  highest 
peaks?  Where  are  they  broken?  What  do  they  contain  ?— 3.  How  far  does  the 
Great  Central  Plain  extend  towards  the  east  ?  To  what  causes  is  the  rain-fall  due  ? 
-A.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  northern  part  of  the  plain  at  the  close  of  the  rainy 
season?  What  does  it  support?  What  is  its  condition  before  the  end  of  the  dry 
season?  What  is  done  with  the  horses  and  cattle  during  the  drought  ?-5.  Describe 
the  central  part  of  the  plain  ?  What  is  the  extent  of  the  great  forest  ?— C.  To  what  is 
the  southern  part  of  the  plain  similar  ?  What  does  it  -support  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
animals  of  the  llanos  and  the  pampas  ?— 7.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  moist  climate  of 
the  plains?  What  do  the  table-landc  of  the  Andes  contain?  Why?  What  is  the 
cause  of  the  rains  west  of  the  Patagonian  Andes  ?  Of  the  dryness  east  of  these  mount- 
ains ?  What  is  the  condition  of  these  plains  farther  to  the  north  ?  What  is  the  cause 
of  the  dryness  of  the  coast  of  Bolivia  ?  What  name  has  been  given  to  a  part  of  the 
plateau  of  Bolivia  ? 


78 


POLITICAL   SOUTH   AMERICA:   QUESTIONS    ON   THE   MAP. -REVIEW  EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 


LXXVII. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

General. — What  countries  of  South  America  border  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea  ?  On  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  On  the  Pacific  ?  Through  what  coun- 
tries do  the  Andes  extend  ?  What  countries  are  drained  by  the  Orinoco 
and  its  branches  ?  By  the  Amazon  ?  By  the  La  Plata  ?  What  countries 
are  crossed  by  the  Equator?     By  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.' 

Brazil. — What  countries  border  on  Brazil  ?  AVhich  country  of  South 
America  does  not  border  on  it?  What  river  drains  the  northern  part 
of  Brazil?  Which  is  its  chief  northern  branch?  Its  chief  southern 
branch?  What  island  just  south  of  the  Equator?  Between  what  two 
rivers  ?  What  mountains  near  the  northern  boundary  ?  What  mount- 
ain chains  near  the  eastern  coast?  What  river  breaks  through  the 
Serro  Espinhaco  Mountains  ?  What  branches  of  the  La  Plata  rise  in 
Brazil  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  cape  is  near  it  ?  What  city 
.south  of  Cape  St.  Roque?  On  the  Para?  Between  Para  and  Pernam- 
buco?     Between  Pernambuco  and  Rio  Janeiro?     On  what  bay? 

Guiana. — How  many  divisions  in  Guiana?  To  whom  do  they  be- 
long ?     What  is  the  capital  of  each  ? 

Venezuela. — What  countries  border  on  Venezuela  ?  What  sea  on  the 
north?  What  lake  and  what  gulf  in  Venezuela?  What  large  river? 
What  island  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ? 
What  town  is  its  port  ?  What  other  port  on  the  coast  ?  What  town  on 
the  Orinoco  ? 

Colombia. — What  countries  border  on  Colombia?  What  cape  at  its 
northern  extremity?  What  waters?  Which  is  its  chief  river?  What 
city  near  its  mouth  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  city  in  the  south- 
west? What  isthmus  in  Colombia?  What  two  ports  on  it?  By  what 
railroad  are  they  connected?     (See  small  map.) 

Ecuador.— What  countries  border  on  Ecuador?  What  gulf  on  its 
shores?  What  volcanoes  are  in  Ecuador?  What  city  is  the  capital? 
How  situated  ?     What  city  is  its  port  ? 

Peru. — What  countries  border  on  Peru  ?  What  lake  partly  in  it  ? 
What  cape  in  the  northwest?  What  islands  near  Cape  Blanco?  AVhat 
city  is  the  capital  ?  What  city  is  the  port  of  Lima  ?  What  city  north- 
east of  Lima  ?   What  city  in  the  southwest  ?   What  city  north  of  Arequipa  ? 

Bolivia. — What  countries  border  on  Bolivia?  What  desert  west  of 
the  Andes  ?  In  what  other  countries  is  the  Desert  of  Atacama  ?  What 
mountain  near  Lake  Titicaca?  What  city  is  the  capital?  What  other 
cities  in  Bolivia? 

Chili.— What  countries  border  on  Chili  ?  What  large  island  south  of 
the  mainland  ?  What  small  islands  west  ?  For  what  is  one  of  these  isl- 
ands famous  ?  {For  having  been  the  solitary  residence  of  Alexander  Sel- 
kirk, whose  story  was  after^vards  ivritten  as  Robinson  Crusoe.)  What 
city  is  the  capital  of  Chili  ?  What  large  city  is  its  port  ?  What  port 
north  of  Valparaiso  ? 


Argentine  Confederation.— What  countries  border  on  the  Argentine 

Confederation  ?  What  rivers  form  parts  of  its  boundary  ?  What  city  is 
the  capital?  What  city  near  the  centre?  North  of  Cordova?  South- 
east of  Cordova  ?     Near  the  Andes? 

Uruguay.— What  countries  border  on  it?  What  rivers?  What  city 
is  the  capital  ? 

Paraguay.— What  countries  border  on  it  ?  What  rivers  form  parts 
of  its  boundary  ?    What  city  is  the  capital  ? 

Patagonia.— What  group  of  islands  south  of  Patagonia?  What 
group  east  ?     What  cape  south  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  ? 


LXXVIII. 

KEVIEW  EXERCISES. 

Countries.—  Where  is  it?     How  bounded?    What  is  the  capital? 


Names. 


Brazil 

British  Guiana.. . 
Dutch  Guiana. . . 
French  Guiana. . . 

Venezuela 

United  States  of 
Colombia 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 


3,2.53,000 

99,900 

59,800 

3.5,100 

368,000 


Population. 

10,000,000 

1.53,000 

60,000 

25,000 

1,400,000 


357,200  I   3,000,000 


Names. 


Ecuador 

Peru 

Bolivia 

Chili 

Argentine  Confed. 

Uruguay 

Paraguay 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 


218,900 
510,000 
.535,800 
132,600 
871,7(10 
69,800 
63,800 


Population. 


1,8(K),000 
3,200,000 
2,000,000 
2,000,000 
2,000,000 
350,000 
1,000,000 


Cities  and  Towns. — In  what  part  of  the  country?  How  situated? — 
Caracas  ?  La  Guayra  ?  Maracaybo  ?  Angostura  ?  Bogota  ?  Po- 
payan  ?  Cartagena?  Panama?  Aspinwall  ?  Quito?  Guayaquil? 
Lima  ?  Callao  ?  Pasco  ?  Cuzco  ?  Arequipa  ?  Sucre  ?  La  Paz  ? 
Cochabamba?  Potosi  ?  Santiago?  Valparaiso?  Coquimbo?  Buenos 
Ayres?  Rosario?  Mendoza?  Cordova?  Tucuman?  Montevideo? 
Asuncion  ?  Rio  Janeiro  ?  Bahia  ?  Pernambuco  ?  Maranham  ? 
Para?    Georgetown?     Paramaribo?     Cayenne? 

Islands. —  Where  situated? — Trinidad  ?  Joannes  ?  Tierra  del  Fuego  ? 
Falkland  ?      Chiloe  ?     Juan  Fernandez  ? 

Capes. — From  what  coast  does  it  project? — Gallinas?  St.  Roque  ? 
Frio?     Horn?     Blanco? 

Mountains.  —  Where  are  they ? — Andes?    Pacaraima?     Serro  Espin-* 
haco  ?     Cotopaxi  (v.)?     Chimborazo  (v.)?     Sorata? 

Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Bays. —  Whete  is  it? — Caribbean  ?  Darien?  Vene- 
zuela?     All  Saints?     Guayaquil?     Panama? 

Rivers. —  Where  does  it  rise  ?  In  7vhat  direction  does  it  flow  ?  Through 
what  countries?  Into  what  body  of  water  ? — Magdalena?  Orinoco? 
Amazon  ?  Negro  ?  Para  ?  Madeira  ?  San  Francisco  ?  La  Plata  ? 
Uruguay  ?     Parana  ?     Paraguay  ? 

Lakes. —  Where  situated?    What  outlet? — Maracaybo?    Titicaca? 


POLITICAL    SOUTH    AMERICA. 


L  X  X  I  X. 

DESCRIPTION. 

1.  South  America,  like  the  northern  continent,  was  set- 
tled and  occupied  by  emigrants  from  Europe. 

Almost  all  of  the  civilized  people  are  found  in  a  broad  band  which 
surrounds  the  continent,  and  crosses  its  narrow  southern  part 
from  Santiago  to  Buenos  Ayres.  The  large  cities  of  the  northern 
and  western  countries  are  in  the  high  and  cool  table-lands; 
those  of  the  eastern  are  seaports  of  the  Atlantic. 


There  are  millions  of  Indians,  the  greater  part  of  whom  are  half- 
civilized,  the  rest  of  them  being  savages. 

2.  South  America  has  had  a  comparatively  limited  com- 
merce. It  is  now  rapidly  increasing,  especially  in  Brazil, 
Chili,  and  the  Argentine  Confederation. 

The  tropical  climate  and  frequent  civil  wars  have  tended  to  repress 
commercial  enterprise,  and  the  grandest  system  of  navigable 
rivers  on  the  globe  is  as  yet  but  little  used.  There  are  no  good 
roads,  and  only  a  few  railways  :  most  of  these  are  short,  and  ex- 
tend from  Buenos  Ayres,  Rio  Janeiro,  Santiago,  and  Lima. 


I.mgitudft      ]3       West 


Eaat        from       47       WacJtingtou. 


26 


^Coj'i'rigAt,  ItilS,  b^    ilurptr  A    BrUh*T:\ 


80 


BRAZIL.- -THE   GUI  ANAS.— SPANISH   SOUTH   AMERICA:   VENEZUELA.— COLOMBIA. 


The  Panama  Railroad  crosses  the  isthmus.  It  is  the 
most  important  railway  in  South  America,  and  is  chiefly 
owned  by  citizens  of  the  United  States. 

3.  The  countries  of  South  America  may  be  considered 
under  three  divisions :  1  st,  Portuguese  South  America,  or 
the  Empire  of  Brazil ;  2d,  the  Guianas,  or  European  colo- 
nies ;  and,  3d,  Spanish  South  America,  or  the  Republics, 

4.  Portiignese  Hoiith  America. — The  largest  and 
most  important  country  of  South  America  is  the  Empire 
of  Brazil. 

It  comprises  mora  than  two  fifllis  of  the  continent,  and  is  the  only 
monarchy  in  the  New  World.  It  was  once  a  colony  of  Portugal, 
and  Portuguese  is  the  language  of  the  civilized  inhabitants. 

The  population  is  mostly  on  or  near  the  southeastern  coast.  The 
people  are  of  three  races^whites,  Indians,  and  negroes,  a  large 
majority  being  of  mixed  races.  Nearly  all  the  negroes  of  South 
America  are  m  Brazil  and  the  Guianas. 

Brazil  has  about  600  miles  of  railroad.  An  ocean  telegraph  con- 
nects Brazil  with  Portugal,  and  another  with  the  United  States 
by  way  of  the  West  Indies. 


BRAZILIAN    COFFEK   PLANTATION. 


Brazil  furnishes  the  greater  part  of  the  coffee  used  in 
the  world,  besides  cotton,  sugar,  hides,  dye-woods.  India- 
rubber,  and  diamonds ;  more  than  half  of  the  coffee,  the 
leading  article  of  export,  goes  to  the  United  States.  The 
greater  part  of  the  entire  South  American  trade  of  the 
United  States  is  with  Brazil.  Rio  Janeiro,  the  capital, 
sometimes  called  Rio,  is  the  most  important  port  and  the 
largest  city  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.     Other  impor- 


tant ports  are  Bahia,  the  second  city  of  Brazil,  Pernam- 
buco,  Maranham,  and  Para. 

5.  The  Guianas  are  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  the  Netherlands.  The  chief  exports  are  indigo,  co- 
coa, sugar,  coffee,  and  other  tropical  productions.  The 
ports  of  Georgetown,  Cayenne,  and  Paramaribo  are  the 
capitals  and  the  chief  centres  of  commerce. 

6.  Npanish  Honth  America  comprises  nine  inde- 
pendent republics,  viz.,  Venezuela,  Colombia,  Ecuador, 
Peru,  Bolivia,  Chili,  Argentine  Confederation,  Uruguay, 
and  Paraguay.  Each  republic  consists  of  a  number  of 
states  under  a  general  government,  as  in  Mexico. 

The  Andean  portion  is  so  rugged  that  the  back  of  an  Indian 
or  of  a  sure-footed  mule  is  almost  the  only  means  of  travel 
and  traffic  over  the  rude  and  dangerous  mountain  roads.  In 
Peru,  Chili,  and  Colombia,  a  few  railroads  have  recently  been 
constructed. 

These  republics  were  once  colonies  of  Spain.  The  language 
spoken  by  the  civilized  inhabitants  is  Spanish. 

In  all  the  republics  of  Spanish 
—■^  _  America,  from   Mexico   to   Chili, 

the  Spanish  Creoles  are  greatly 
outnumbered  by  the  Indians  and 
mixed  races.  This  fact  has  an 
important  influence  upon  the  en- 
terprise, commerce,  and  social  and 
political  condition  of  these  coun- 
tries. 

7.  Venezuela. — Venezuela  ex- 
ports coffee,  cocoa,  and  other  trop- 
ical products  from  La  Guayra  and 
Maracaybo  on  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
and  the  cattle  products  of  the 
llanos  from  Angostura  on  the 
Orinoco.  Caracas,  the  capital  and 
largest  city,  is  3000  feet  above  the 
sea. 

8.  Tlie  rnited  States  of  Co- 
lombia.— The  United  States  of 
Colombia  is  the  most  important 
of  the  five  northern  republics. 

This  is  due  to  its  geographical  position.  It  contains  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  which  is  the  most  direct  route  for  the  rapidly  increas- 
ing commerce  between  the  countries  bordering  the  two  great 
oceans.  A  short  railroad  from  Panama  to  Aspinwali  is  now  the 
route  of  this  commerce.  A  great  canal  for  the  largest  vessels 
is  proposed.  Its  construction,  if  ever  accomplished,  will  be  due 
to  the  energy  and  enterprise  of  the  great  maritime  nations.  Its 
opening  would  constitute  one  of  the  most  important  commercial 
and  political  events  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

The  chief  exports  are  Peruvian  bark,  from  which  qui- 


ECUADOR.— PERU.— BOLIVIA.— CHILL— ARGENTINE   CONFEDERATION.— URUGUAY.— PARAGUAY. 


81 


nine  is  extracted,  tobacco,  and  coffee.  Bogota,  the  capital 
and  largest  city,  is  nearly  9000  feet  above  the  sea;  Popayan, 
the  second  city,  is  6000  feet.  Cartagena,  Savanilla,  Pan- 
ama, and  Aspinwall,  also  called  Colon,  are  the  chief  ports. 
9.  Ecuador. — The  exports  of  Ecuador  are  cocoa,  cof- 
fee, India-rubber,  and  Peruvian  bark.  Guayaquil  is  the 
chief  port.     Quito  is  the  capital  and  largest  city. 


INDIA-RUBBER  TREES. 


10.  Pern. — Peru  has  more  miles  of  railroad  than  any 
other  state  of  South  America,  except  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation.    Its  chief  exports  are  guano  and  saltpetre. 

Guano  is  obtained  from  the  Lobos  Islands  and  other  parts  of  the 
rainless  coast;  saltpetre  from  the  southern  pait  of  the  same 
region. 

Lima,  the  capital,  is  the  largest  city  in  South  America 
west  of  the  Andes.     Its  sea-port  is  Callao. 

Pasco,  1.3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  the  most  elevated  city  in  the 
world,  is  surrounded  with  silver-mines.  Cuzco  and  Arequipa 
are  large  cities.  Lake  Titicaca,  on  the  borders  of  Bolivia,  1 3,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  highest  large  mountain  lake  in  the 
world.     Its  waters  flow  into  Lake  Aullagas  in  Bolivia. 

11.  Bolivia. — Bolivia  has  but  little  commerce.  It  ex- 
ports Peruvian  bark,  saltpetre,  and  silver-ore.  The  large 
cities  Sucre,  Potosi,  Cochabamba,  and  La  Paz,  the  capital, 
are  all  on  the  plateau. 

12.  Chili. — Chili  is  the  most  enterprising  country  of 
South  America,  and  has  a  large  proportion  of  European 


mhabitants.  The  chief  exports  are  copper-ore,  silver,  and 
wheat. 

Santiago,  the  capital,  is  the  largest  city.  Valparaiso,  the 
second  city,  is  the  largest  sea-port  on  the  Pacific  coast 
of  America,  excepting  San  Francisco. 

13.  The  Argentine  Confederation. —  The  Argen- 
tine Confederation  stands  next  to  Chili  in  enterprise. 

Emigration  from  Southern  Europe,  and  commerce,  are 
increasing.  Education  is  advancing  more  rapidly  than 
in  any  other  country  in  South  America.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  hides  and  wool.  Two  thirds  of  the  hides  are 
sent  to  the  United  States.  The  capital,  Buenos  Ayres,  is 
the  second  city  in  South  America.  Other  important 
cities,  Rosario,  Mendoza,  Cordova,  Tucuman,  and  Cor- 
rientes,  are  on  the  great  trade-routes  to  Chili,  Bolivia, 
and  Paraguay. 

14.  Uruguay. — Uruguay  is  similar  in  its  leading  ex- 
ports to  the  Argentine  Confederation.  Montevideo,  the 
capital,  has  a  large  trade  in  cattle  products. 

15.  Paraguay. — Paraguay,  the   smallest  and  weakest 

of  the  nine  republics,  is  the  only  South  American  country 

having  no  sea-coast.     Asuncion  is  the  capital. 

Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego  form  the  southern  part  of 
South  America.  The  inhabitants  are  savage  tribes.  Eastern 
Patagonia  is  claimed  by  Chili  and  by  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation. 

Questions  (T.) — 1.  By  wlirm  was  South  America  settled? — 3.  What  is  said  of  its 
commerce.'  Of  the  Panama  Railroad? — 'S.  How  may  the  countries  of  South  America 
be  considered?  What  are  the  divisions? — i.  Which  is  the  largest?  What  are  the 
principal  productions  of  Brazil  ?  What  is  the  extent  of  its  trade  with  the  United 
States?  What  city  io  the  capital?  For  what  is  it  noted?  What  other  important 
ports.' — 5.  To  what  countries  do  the  Guianas  belong?  What  are  the  chief  exports ?. 
What  cities  are  the  capitals  and  centres  of  commerce? — 6.  What  does  Spanish  South 
America  comprise?  Name  them.  Of  what  does  each  republic  consist?  What  is 
said  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  republics  of  Spanish  America  ?  Why  is  this  an  important 
fact? — 7.  What  are  the  exports  of  Venezuela?  What  city  is  the  capital?  What  is 
said  of  it .' — 8.  Of  the  United  States  of  Colombia?  What  are  the  chief  exports?  What 
city  is  the  capital  ?     What  is  said  of  it  ?     Of  Popayan?     What  are  the  chief  ports? — 

9.  What  are   the  exports  of  Ecuador  ?     The   chief  port  ?     What  is  the   capital .' — 

10.  What  is  said  of  the  railroads  of  Peru  ?  What  are  the  chief  exports  ?  What  city 
is  the  capital?  What  is  said  of  it?  What  is  its  sea-port? — 11.  What  is  said  of  the 
connnerce  of  Bolivia?  What  are  tlie  exports?  Which  are  the  large  cities?  Where 
are  they? — 13.  p'or  what  is  Chili  noted?  What  are  the  chief  exports  ?  What  is  the 
capital  and  largest  city?  For  what  is  Valparaiso  noted? — 13.  What  is  said  of  the 
Argentine  Confederation  ?  Of  emigration  and  commerce?  Of  education?  What  are 
the  chief  exports ?  Where  are  most  of  the  hides  sent?  What  city  is  the  capital? 
What  is  said  of  it  ?     Which  are  the  other  important  cities?     Where  are  they? — 

14.  What  are  the  exports  of  Uruguay?     What  is  the  capital  ?    What  is  said  of  it? — 

15.  Of  Paraguay?     What  is  the  capital  ? 

(II.) — 1.  In  what  part  of  South  America  are  most  of  the  civilized  inliabitants? 
Where  are  the  large  cities?  What  is  said  of  the  Indians  ? — 2.  Why  has  .South  America 
so  little  commerce?  What  is  said  of  the  roads? — i.  What  is  said  of  Brazil  ?  Where 
is  most  of  the  population?  Of  what  does  it  consist?  Where  are  most  of  the 
negroes?  What  is  said  of  the  railroads  of  Brazil  ?  Of  the  telegraphs? — G.  What  is 
said  of  the  Andean  portion  of  the  Spanish  Republics?  Of  what  country  were  these 
republics  once  colonies?  What  language  is  spoken? — 8.  Why  is  Colombia  the 
most  important  of  the  five  northern  republics?  Wh.it  commercial  route  does  it  con- 
tain ?  What  is  the  present  route  of  this  commerce?  What  other  route  has  been 
proposed?  What  is  said  of  it  ? — 10.  Where  is  guano  obtained  ?  Saltpetre?  For  what 
is  Pasco  noted  ?  Cuzco  and  Arequipa  ?  Lake  Titicaca  ?  Where  do  its  waters  flow? 
— 15.  What  country  and  group  of  islands  form  the  southern  part  of  South  .^lnerica? 
Who  are  the  inhabitants?     By  what  republics  is  Eastern  Patagonia  claimed? 


PHYSICAL   EUROPE:   QUESTIONS   ON    THE   MAP.— REVIEV/   EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 


83 


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84 


PHYSICAL    EUROPE:    SURFACE.— CLIMATE.— VEGETATION  AND   ANIMALS. 


4.  Surface. — Eastern  Europe  is  a  plain,  and  includes 
the  greater  part  of  Low  Europe. 

This  plain  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Black  and  Caspian 
seas,  where  it  unites  with  the  Great  Northern  Plain  of  Asia.  It 
is  also  continued  into  Great  Britain  and  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay  in 
the  west,  and  to  the  Balkan  Mountains  in  the  south. 

5.  Four  important  mountain  systems  partly  enclose  this 
great  plain — the  Scandinavian,  the  Ural,  the  Caucasus,  and 
the  Carpathian.  Four  inland  seas — viz.,  the  White,  the 
Caspian,  the  Black,  and  the  North — break  into  the  borders 
of  the  plain  between  the  ends  of  these  mountains.  Be- 
sides these  is  the  Baltic,  which  is  entirely  within  the  plain. 
These  five  seas  receive  large  and  sluggish  rivers,  the  most 
important  of  which  diverge  from  a  small  central  district 
which  contains  the  Valdai  Hills. 

Among  these  rivers  are  the  Dwina,  the  Ural,  the  Volga,  the  Don, 
the  Dnieper,  the  Elbe,  the  Vistula,  and  the  Duna. 

The  northwestern  part  of  the  plain  contains  many  lakes; 

among  these  are  Ladoga  and  Onega,  the  largest  lakes  in 

Europe. 

6.  These  rivers  and  lakes,  and  the  canals  by  which  they 
are  connected,  are  the  commercial  routes  of  Eastern 
Europe.  The  Volga  is  the  chief  line  of  the  domestic 
and  the  Asiatic  trade  of  the  seventy  millions  of  people 
that  inhabit  the  eastern  plain. 

7.  Western  Europe  includes  High  Europe,  which  is  a 
network  of  mountain  chains  with  enclosed  valleys  and 
plains.     The  largest  plateau  is  in  Spain. 


ALPINE  VALLEY   AND  GLACIER. 


8.  The  Alps,  the  loftiest  mountains  in  Europe,  the  Bal- 
kan, and  the  Pyrenees  are  the  principal  systems. 

Many  of  the  summits  of  the  Alps  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow, 
and  the  valleys  between  are  filled  with  glaciers. 

9.  Four  navigable  rivers — the  Po,  the  Rhone,  the  Rhine, 
and  the  Danube — flow  from  the  heart  of  High  Europe, 


and  pass  through  the  plains  to  four  seas.  The  Po  is  the 
chief  interior  water-way  of  Italy,  and  the  Rhone  of  France. 
The  Rhine  and  the  Danube  are  the  chief  commercial 
rivers  of  Western  Europe,  the  latter  being  the  more  im- 
portant. 

10.  Climate. — Western  Europe,  especially  near  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  has  a  milder  climate  than  other  parts 
of  the  world  in  the  same  latitude. 

"  Ever-green  Ireland  "  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  cold  and  barren 
Labrador;  St.  Petersburg  and  Stockholm  are  on  the  parallel  of 
Cape  Farewell  ;  and  the  never-frozen  port  of  Hammerfest  is  as 
far  north  as  the  ice-covered  regions  of  the  Arctic  Archipelago. 

The  principal  cause  of  this  remarkable  climate  is  the  warm  south- 
west or  return  trade-winds,  which  bring  with  them  a  part  of  the 
heat  they  have  acquired  in  the  Torrid  Zone.  The  warm  waters 
of  the  Gulf  Stream  are  also  supposed  to  reach  these  coasts  and 
to  assist  in  modifying  their  climate. 

The  winter  climate  of  the  interior  parts  of  Western  Europe  also 
presents  remarkable  peculiarities.  It  becomes  more  severe  to- 
wards the  south  ;  this  is  in  consequence  of  the  great  elevation. 
Some  cities  in  High  Europe  have  much  colder  winters  than  other 
places  far  north  of  them  near  the  shores  of  the  ocean. 

A  similar  change  takes  place  towards  the  east  with  increasing 
distance  from  the  ocean.  The  average  number  of  days  during 
which  the  Rhine  is  frozen  over  during  the  year  is  twenty-six; 
the  Weser,  which  is  east  of  the  Rhine,  is  frozen  for  thirty  days ; 
the  Elbe,  still  further  east,  for  sixty-two ;  the  Oder  for  seventy ; 
and  the  Vistula  for  about  eighty  days. 

IL  The  climate  of  the  Mediterranean  countries  is  al- 
most tropical. 

This  is  the  effect  of  the  general  southward  slope  of  the  country,  the 
warm  winds  from  the  Sahara,  the  mild  waters  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  the  high  mountain  walls  that  shut  out  the  cold  polar 
winds.  Figs,  oranges,  sugar-cane,  and  rice  grow  in  the  latitude 
of  New  York  and  Boston.  The  Spanish  plateau  has  a  cold  win- 
ter and  a  hot  and  dry  summer. 

12.  The  Great  Plain  has  a  varied  climate.  The  winters 
are  intensely  cold ;  in  the  south  the  summers  are  hot. 

This  winter  climate  is  caused  by  distance  from  the  warm  western 
ocean,  and  by  the  prevalence  of  the  polar  winds,  that  sweep 
unchecked  to  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian. 

13.  Vegetation  and  Animals. — The  Great  Plain  has 
three  belts  of  vegetable  and  animal  life. 

The  arctic  regions  are  mossy,  treeless  swamps,  inhab- 
ited by  reindeer  and  other  arctic  animals. 

Most  of  these  animals  seek  the  forest  regions  during  the  long 
winters.  The  rivers  are  frozen  nine  months  in  the  year.  There 
are  few  human  inhabitants. 

Another  wide  treeless  region  stretches  across  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  plain.  Barren  salt  plains,  called  steppes, 
occupy  its  eastern  portion.  In  the  west  are  broad  prairies, 
which  sustain  large  numbers  of  sheep,  horses,  and  cattle, 
and  produce  maize  and  great  quantities  of  wheat. 

A  vast  forest  occupies  a  great  part  of  the  middle 
belt.     In  its  colder  regions  the  hardy  grains — rye,  oats, 


PHYSICAL    EUROPE:   VEGETATION.— MINERALS.— REFERENCE   TABLE. 


85 


and  barley — are  cultivated ;  farther  south,  flax,  hemp,  and 
wheat. 

14.  The  warm  countries  of  the  Mediterranean  produce 
the  olive,  the  almond,  the  orange,  besides  rice  and  other 
grains. 

Grains,  fruits,  and  vines  are  cultivated  in  the  lowlands 
of  the  Atlantic  coasts  and  the  valleys  of  High  Europe. 

As  we  ascend  the  mountains  of  High  Europe  the  chestnut  gives 
phice  to  the  oai<,  then  follow  pine  forests  and  high  pastures, 
then  glaciers  and  perpetual  snow. 

15.  The  northwestern  coasts  of  Europe  have  extensive 
and  valuable  fisheries. 

16.  minerals. — The  mountains  of  Europe  furnish  an 
abundance  of  the  most  useful  minerals ;  among  these  are 
coal,  iron,  lead,  tin,  zinc,  and  copper. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  Europe  as  a  physical  division?  Of  what  is  it  made 
up  ?  From  what  does  it  project  f  Between  what  waters  ?  How  is  its  western  half 
divided.'  What  one  in  the  northwest?  What  one  in  the  southwest.' — 2.  Which  is 
the  larger  and  more  important  of  these  peninsulas .' — 3.  What  large  islands  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea?  In  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ? — 1.  What  is  the  character  of  Eastern 
Europe  ?  What  does  it  include .' — n.  How  many  and  what  mountain  systems  partly  en- 
close the  plain  ?  How  many  and  what  seas  break  its  borders  ?  Between  what  are  they 
situated?  What  sea  lies  entirely  in  the  plain?  What  do  these  seas  receive  from  the 
plain?  Where  is  the  lake  region?  Which  are  the  two  largest  lakes.' — 6.  What  use 
is  made  of  these  rivers  and  lakes?  What  river  forms  the  principal  commercial  route 
of  Eastern  Europe? — 7.  What  does  Western  Europe  include?  Of  what  does  High 
Europe  consist?  Which  is  the  only  large  plateau.' — 8.  Name  the  chief  mountain  sys- 
tems of  High  Europe.  Which  are  the  highest  mountains  in  Europe.' — 9.  What  four 
rivers  flow  from  High  Europe  ?  To  what?  Through  what  ?  Of  what  countries  are 
they  the  chief  water-routes?  Which  are  the  chief  commercial  rivers  of  Western  Europe? 
Wliich  is  the  more  important.' — 10.  What  is  the  character  of  the  climate  of  Western 
Europe? — 11.  What  is  the  general  climate  of  the  Mediterranean  countries.' — 13.  What 
is  the  climate  of  the  Great  Plain? — 13.  How  many  belts  of  vegetable  and  animal  life  in 
the  Great  Plain  ?  Describe  the  arctic  belt.  By  what  animals  inhabited?  Describe  the 
southern  belt.  Where  are  the  salt  steppes  ?  The  prairies?  What  do  thev  sustain  ? 
What  are  the  vegetable  products?    Describe  the  middle  belt.    What  are  its  products? 


— 14.  What  are  the  vegetable  products 
of  the  Mediterranean  region  ?  Of 
the  Atlantic  coasts  ? — 15.  Where  are 
the  great  European  fisheries?  — 10. 
What  are  the  principal  minerals  of 
Europe  ? 

(H.) — 2.  By  what  is  Western  Eu- 
rope bordered  ?  By  what  are  its 
shores  broken?  What  two  penin- 
sulas on  the  northern  border?  What 
peninsulas  opposite  them  ?  What 
peninsula  forms  the  southwestern  ex- 
tremity of  Europe  ?  Of  what  advan- 
tage is  the  peninsular  character  of  Eu- 
rope ? — i.  '^'hat  is  the  northern  limit 
of  the  Great  Plain  ?  The  southern 
limit  ?  With  what  other  plain  is  it 
connected  ?  What  western  extension 
has  it?  What  southern  extension? 
— 5.  Name  some  of  the  rivers  of  East- 
ern Europe. — 8.  What  is  said  of  the 
Alps  ? — 10.  With  what  is  Ireland  con- 
trasted ?  St.  Petersburg  and  Stock- 
holm ?  Hammerfest  ?  What  are  the 
causes  of  the  mild  climate  of  Western 
Europe  ?  Describe  the  peculiarities  in 
the  climate  of  the  interior  of  Western 
Europe. — 11.  What  are  the  causes  of 
the  tropical  climate  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean ?  What  contrast  with  New  York 
and  Boston  ?  What  is  the  climate 
of  the  Spanish  plateau?  — 13.  What 
are  the  causes  of  the  varied  climate 
of  the  Great  Plain  ? — 13.  What  is  said 
of  the  animals  of  the  Arctic  regions? 
Of  the  rivers  ?  Of  the  inhabitants .' — 
14.  Of  the  mountains  of  High  Europe  ? 


Nam««. 

Norway 

Sweden 

Russia  in  Europe 

Russia  in  Asia 

British  Empire  (about) 

England  and  Wales 

Scotland  and  islands 

Ireland  and  smaller  islands 

Colonial  dependencies 

Spain 

Spanish  Colonies 


Area  in 
SqQ&re  Miles. 


122,000 

1I2,0«0 

2,100,000 

6,25(1,000 

8,811,000 

57,800 

31,300 

82,800 

8,690,000 

19.^775 

117,000 


Population. 


1,763,000 
4,298,000 

72,000,000 

12,000,000 
284,000,000 

22,712,000 

3,360,000 

6,557,000 

252,000,000 

16,8.15,000 
5,500,QOO 


Names. 

Portugal 

France 

Algeria  and  other  French  colonies 

Italy , 

Switzerland 

Austria 

Roumania 

Servia 

Montenegro 

Turkey  in  Europe 

Greece 


Area  in 
Square  Milei 


34,600 
204,100 
400,000 
114,400 

16,000 
240,300 

61,200 

20,400 

3,200 

140,000 

19,350 


Poputation. 


4,000,000 
36,470,000 

6,800,000 
27,000,000 

2,670,000 
30,000,000 

4,800,000 

1,640,000 
210,000 

8,500,000 

1,458,000 


Names. 

Denmark 

German  Empire. ... 

Prussia 

Bavaria 

Saxony , 

Wurtemberg ■ 

Baden 

Hesse 

Alsace-Lorraine. . , 
The  Netherlands. . . . 
Belgium 


Area  In  q       ... 

Square  Mile..       r»P°l«'l»»- 


14,760 

1,786,000 

209,000 

41,000,000 

134,500 

24,656,000 

29,300 

4,8.^2,000 

6,800 

2,.')56,000 

7,500 

1,819,000 

6,800 

],462,fifl0 

3,000 

S.V1,000 

6.600 

1,550,000 

12,679 

3,676,000 

11,380 

6,000,000 

86 


POLITICAL  EUROPE:   QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP.— REVIEW  EXERCISES. 


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88 


POLITICAL  EUROPE:   DESCRIPTION.— QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


DESCRIPTION. 


LXXXIV. 

GOVEENMENTS  AND  POPULATION. 

1.  Governments.  —  Europe  contains  four  empires, 
Russia,  Turkey,  Germany,  and  Austria ;  two  republics, 
France  and  Switzerland ;  ten  independent  kingdoms,  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Spain,  Portugal, 
Italy,  Greece,  Denmark,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands ; 
and  three  independent  principalities,  Roumania,  Servia,  and 
Montenegro.  Russia  and  Turkey  are  absolute,  Germany, 
Austria,  and  the  ten  kingdoms  are  limited  monarchies. 

Besides  these,  there  are  in  the  German  Empire  the  kingdoms  of 
Prussia,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Wijrtemberg;  in  the  Austrian  Em- 
pire, Bohemia,  Galicia,  Hungary,  and  Croatia  and  Slavonia;  and 
in  the  Turkish  Empire  the  principality  of  Bulgaria. 

Andorra  in  Spain  and  San  Marino  in  Italy  are  very  small  but 
ancient  republics. 

2.  Population. — The  total  population  of  Europe  is 
estimated  at  300  millions,  three  fourths  of  it  being  in 
western  Europe.     It  is  nearly  all  Caucasian. 

The  three  chief  branches  of  the  Caucasian  race  in  Europe  are  the 
Celts  in  the  west,  the  Teutons  from  the  Alps  to  Scotland  and 
northern  Norwa)',  and  the  Sclaves  in  the  Great  Plain. 

The  people  of  the  eastern  half  of  Europe  belong  mostly  to  the 
Greek  Church  ;  those  of  the  northwestern  regions  are  princi- 
pally Protestants ;  nearly  all  the  rest,  including  more  than  half 
the  population,  are  Roman  Catholics.  Near  the  Black  Sea  are 
several  millions  of  Mohammedans. 


3.  ]\rorway  and  Sweden.  —  Norway  and  Sweden 
occupy  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  Norway  is  the 
smaller  and  more  mountainous,  and  has  only  one  third 
as  many  inhabitants  as  Sweden.  The  kingdoms  are 
separate,  but  the  same  king  rules  over  both. 

4.  The  maritime  commerce  of  Norway  is  extensive  and 
important.     The  exports  are  lumber  and  fish. 

5.  In  Sweden  railways  and  a  system  of  canals  from 
the  Baltic  to  the  Cattegat  unite  the  internal  with  the 
maritime  commerce.  The  exports  are  grain,  iron,  and 
copper. 

6.  Christiania,  the  capital  of  Norway,  and  Bergen,  its 
largest  Atlantic  port,  have  a  large  trade  in  lumber  and . 
fish.     Hammerfest,  the  most  northern  town  in  the  world, 
is  dependent  upon  the  cod-fisheries.     The  Norwegian  fish- 
eries nearly  equal  those  of  British  North  America. 

Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Sweden,  is  situated  on  several 
small  islands.  Gottenburg  is  an  important  port  and  man- 
ufacturing city.     Norrkoping  is  a  grain  port. 

7.  Rusi^ia. — The  Russian  Empire,  next  to  that  of  Great 
Britain,  is  the  most  extensive  dominion  in  the  world.  It 
includes  about  one  half  of  Europe  and  more  than  one 
third  of  Asia.  The  monarch  is  called  the  Czar,  or  em- 
peror.    The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Sclaves. 

[For  remainder  of  Section  LXXXIV.,  see  page  90.] 


LXXXV. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

England  and  Wales. — What  three  countries  on  the  island  of  Great 
Britain  ?  What  waters  between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ?  England 
and  France  i'  What  island  in  the  Irish  Sea  ?  What  hills  between 
England  and  Scotland?  What  mountains  in  Wales?  What  bay  west 
of  Wales?  What  two  rivers  flow  into  the  North  Sea?  For  what  is  the 
Thames  remarkable?  i^For  the  largest  maritime  commerce  in  the  world.) 
What  river  flows  into  the  Bristol  Channel?  Into  the  Irish  Sea?  What 
city  on  the  Thames  ?  What  port  on  the  Humber  ?  What  city  northwest 
of  Hull  ?  Southwest  of  York  ?  West  of  Leeds  ?  Near  the  mouth  of  the 
Mersey?  South  of  Leeds?  In  the  northern  part  of  England?  Near 
the  centre  ?  Near  the  Severn  ?  What  two  cities  east  of  Liverpool  ? 
On  the  south  coast  ?     In  the  southern  part  of  Wales  ? 

Scotland. — What  islands  northwest  of  Scotland?  What  groups  north 
of  Scotland  ?  What  hills  in  Scotland  ?  What  peak  of  the  Grampians  is 
the  highest  in  Great  Britain?  {Ben  Ne7>is,  ^^10  feet.)  What  name  is 
given  to  the  bays  of  the  coast  of  Scotland?  {Firths.)  Name  the  five 
chief  firths  of  Scotland.  What  firth,  hills,  and  river  form  the  boundary 
between  Scotland  and  England  ?  What  river  flows  into  the  Firth  of 
Clyde  ?  What  canal  in  the  northern  part  of  Scotland  ?  What  three 
cities  on  or  near  the  east  coast  ?     On  or  near  the  Clyde  ? 

Ireland. — What  bays  on  the  western  coast  of  Ireland?  Which  is  the 
largest  river?     What  port  in  the  northern  part?     In  the  northeastern? 


In  the  eastern  ?     What  city  in  the  southern  part  ?     What  sea-port  near 
it?     What  port  on  Galway  Bay  ?     On  the  Shannon  ? 

Travels. — Through  what  cities  would  you  pass  in  travelling  by  railway 
from  Edinburgh  to  London  by  way  of  Newcastle  ?  Plymouth  to  Hull  by 
way  of  Birmingham  ?     Newcastle  to  Liverpool  by  way  of  Leeds  ? 


LXXXVI. 

EEVIEW  EXEEOISES. 

Cities  and  Towns. — In  jvhat  part  of  the  country  ?  How  situated  ? — 
London?  Liverpool?  Manchester?  Birmingham?  Leeds?  Sheflfield? 
Bristol?  Bradford?  Newcastle?  Salford?  Hull?  Portsmouth?  York? 
Plymouth?  Merthyr  Tydvil  ?  Swansea?  Edinburgh?  Glasgow? 
Dundee?  Aberdeen?  Paisley?  Greenock?  Dublin?  Belfast?  Cork? 
Londonderry  ?     Galway  ?     Limerick  ? 

Islands. —  Where  situated i — Man?    Hebrides?    Orkney?    Shetland? 

Mountains. —  Where  are  they? — Grampian  Hills?  Cheviot  Hills? 
Cambrian  ?     Ben  Nevis  ? 

Seas,  Gulfs,  and  'R^js.— Where  is  //;— North  Sea?  Irish  Sea?  St. 
Georges  Channel  ?  English  Channel  ?  North  Channel  ?  Strait  of 
Dover?  Bristol  Channel  ?  Firth  of  Clyde  ?  Firth  of  Forth  ?  Sohvay 
Firth?     Moray?     Pentland?     Cardigan  Bay?     Galway?     Donegal? 

Rivers. —  Where  does  it  risei  In  what  direction  does  it  flow?  Into 
what  body  of  7vater? — Thames?    Severn?    Mersey?    Clyde?    Shannon? 


Lon^nide    ~Wf^Bt        4        from    Greenwich.         2 


MAP    OF    THT1 


BEITISH  ISLES. 


Scale  of  aiiies. 
6Q TO 3f» i» 


29 


llMpgrij/Ai,  1675,  ^y  liaryvr  tfe    ttruthtra.^ 


90 


RUSSIA.— GREAT   BRITAIN    AND   IRELAND. 


8.  The  exports,  in  the  order  of 
their  importance,  are  grains,  flax- 
seed, lumber,  wool,  flax,  hemp,  and 
cattle.  The  chief  foreign  trade 
is  with  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many. 

9.  The  principal  cities  are  St. 
Petersburg,  the  capital  and  larg- 
est city  and  greatest  commercial 
depot ;  Moscow,  the  ancient  cap- 
ital of  Russia;  and  Warsaw,  the 
chief  city  of  Poland.  The  last 
two  are  manufacturing  cities. 

Riga  and  Cronstadt,  on  the 
Baltic,  export  grain,  hemp,  flax, 
and  lumber ;  Odessa,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  is  a  great  grain  port ; 
Astrakhan,  on  the  Caspian,  is 
noted  for  its  fisheries  and  its 
caravan  trade  with  Asia ;  Arch- 
angel, on  the  White  Sea,  exports 
oats,  rye,  flax,  and  forest  prod- 
ucts. 


Questions  (I.)  — 1-  How  many  and  what 
empires  in  Europe?  How  many  and  whaf  re- 
publics ?  How  many  and  what  kingdoms  ?  Which  are  absolute  monarchies  ?  Which 
are  limited  ? — 2.  What  is  the  population  of  Europe  ?  In  what  part  is  most  of  it  ?  Of 
what  race  ? — 3.  Where  are  Norway  and  Sweden?  How  does  Norway  compare  with 
Sweden  in  size  ?  In  surface  ?  In  population  ?  What  political  connection  have  they  ? 
— 4.  What  is  the  commerce  of  Norway?     What  are  its  principal  exports? — 5.  How 


is  the  interior  commerce  of  Sweden  connected  with  the 
maritime  ?  What  are  the  exports  ? — G.  What  is  said  of 
Christiania  ?  Bergen  ?  Hammerfest  ?  Of  the  fisheries 
of  Norway  ?  Of  Stockholm  ?  Gottenburg  ?  Norr- 
koping  ? — 7.  What  is  said  of  the  extent  of  the  Russian 
Empire?  What  does  it  include?  What  is  the  title 
of  the  monarch  ?  Of  what  race  are  most  of  the  in- 
habitants?— 8.  What  are  the  leading  exports?  With 
what  countries  is  most  of  the  foreign  trade  ? — ^9.  For 

what  is  St.  Petersburg  noted  ?    Moscow?    Warsaw?    Riga  and  Cronstadt  ?    Odessa? 

Astrakhan  ?    Archangel  ? 

(II.) — 1.  What  kingdoms  in  the  German  Empire?     In  the  Austrian?    What  small 

republic  in  Spain?    What  one  in  Italy?    What  is  said  of  them? — 2.  What  branches 

of  the  Caucasian  race  in  Europe  ?     What  religions  ? 


GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND. 


LXXXVII. 

DESOEIPTION. 

1.  The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
includes  these  two  great  islands  and  many  neighboring 
small  ones;  it  has  also  extensive  colonial  possessions  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.  The  kingdom  with  its  depend- 
encies is  generally  called  the  British  Empire. 

The  most  important  colonies  are  British  America,  Australia,  Tas- 
mania, New  Zealand,  British  India,  and  Ceylon.  Among  its  other 
possessions  are  Gibraltar,  Malta,  and  Cyprus,  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea,  South  Africa,  parts  of  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  with 
St.  Helena,  Mauritius,  and  other  African  islands,  many  of  the 
West  India  Islands,  and  parts  of  Central  and  South  America. 

2.  Occupations. — The  chief  wealth  of  Great  Britain 
is   in   its   manufactures,  mines,  and   extensive    maritime 


commerce.      Agriculture  is  carried  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection ;  in  Ireland  it  is  the  leading  occupation. 

3.  mines. — The  mines  of  Great  Britain  supply  nearly 
one  half  of  the  coal,  iron,  and  tin  used  in  the  world,  one 
third  of  the  lead,  and  great  quantities  of  copper  and  salt. 

4.  llannfactnres. — It  surpasses  every  other  country 
in  the  amount  and  variety  of  manufactures.  The  most 
important  are  of  cotton,  wool,  and  iron. 

5.  Commerce. — It  has  also  a  greater  maritime  com- 
merce than  any  other  nation. 

It  has  at  least  22,000  merchant  vessels,  and  more  than  200,000 
seamen.  They  carry  its  manufactured  products  to  every  country 
on  the  globe,  and  bring  in  return  food  and  raw  materials.  A 
large  part  of  the  food  and  two  thirds  of  the  raw  cotton  are  ob- 
tained from  the  United  States,  which  takes  in  return  a  greater 
quantity  of  manufactures  than  any  other  country.    This  commerce 


GREAT    BRITAIN  AND    IRELAND. 


91 


is  protected  by  the  largest  navy  that  has  ever  existed.  Fortified 
naval  depots  for  coal  and  provisions  have  been  established  on 
all  the  great  routes  of  maritime  trade.  Among  these  depots  are 
Gibraltar  at  the  entrance,  Malta  in  the  middle,  and  Cyprus  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea ;  St.  Helena,  Cape 
Town,  and  Mauritius  on  the  South  African  route,  and  Aden  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Red  Sea ;  Singapore  at  one  end  of  the  China 
Sea  and  Hong  Kong  at  the  other  ;  Jamaica  and  other  islands 
of  the  West  Indies  ;  Halifax,  the  Bermudas,  and  the  Bahamas 
on  the  coasts  of  the  United  States ;  with  many  others  in  India 
and  Australia,  besides  home  depots. 


the  empire;  if  opposed  by  a  majority  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
he  resigns,  and  the  sovereign  appoints  his  successor. 

7.  London,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  and  of  the  em- 
pire, is  the  most  populous  and  v/ealthy  city  in  the  world ; 
it  is  also  first  in  commercial  importance;  it  covers  122 
square  miles.  Liverpool  has  a  very  large  foreign  com- 
merce, especially  with  the  United  States ;  Manchester 
manufactures    more    cotton  goods  than    any  other  city ; 


'\j!\     -'■ 
-i,   -^i^    ,1 


BRITISH   NAVAL  REVIEW 


The  several  countries  of  Europe,  and  in  many  instances  parts  of 
the  same  country,  differ  widely  in  race,  language,  and  religion. 
There  are  also  intense  commercial  and  political  rivalries.  As 
a  result,  mutual  distrust  and  jealousy  exist  among  the  several 
governments,  and  Europe  has  become  one  great  camp.  In  a 
time  of  professed  peace  between  three  and  four  millions  of  sol- 
diers stand  ready  for  war,  and  the  military  service  is  so  arranged 
that  this  vast  number  of  armed  men  can  be  more  than  doubled 
at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  Besides  all  this,  great  navies,  that 
of  Great  Britain  being  the  most  powerful,  are  ready  to  extend 
upon  the  sea  the  destruction  which  may  at  any  time  begin  upon 
the  land. 

These  enormous  armaments  are  maintained  by  a  grinding  taxation 
and,  in  many  countries,  by  a  merciless  conscription  that  with- 
draws millions  of  young  men  for  years  from  all  productive  in- 
dustry. In  consequence  of  this,  in  every  part  of  Europe  thou- 
sands of  women  are  obliged  to  work  in  the  fields,  and  to  en- 
gage in  other  forms  of  the  hardest  and  rudest  labor.  In  con- 
trast with  this  state  of  affairs,  the  United  States,  though  equal  in 
area  to  all  Europe,  has  but  a  small  navy  and  a  widely  scattered 
army  of  about  30,000  men. 

6.  Ooveriiment;.  —  Great   Britain  is  a  constitutional 

monarchy. 

The  Legislature,  or  Parliament,  has  two  branches — the  House  of 
Lords,  consisting  of  bishops  and  nobles,  and  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, the  members  of  which  are  elected  by  the  people.  The 
executive  power  and  the  entire  responsibility  of  the  government 
are  in  the  hands  of  a  small  body  of  men  called  the  Ministry ; 
they  are  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  through  the  influence  of  the 
Commons.     The  Prime  Minister  is  practically  the  real  ruler  of 


Leeds  and  Bradford  are  noted  for  woollen  manufactures, 
Sheffield  for  cutlery,  Birmingham  for  general  hardware, 
Newcastle  for  coal.  In  Wales,  Merthyr  Tydvil  and 
Swansea  are  the  largest  cities. 

In  Scotland,  Glasgow  is  the  largest  city ;  it  is  also  the 
leading  manufacturing  city  and  the  chief  seat  of  com- 
merce. Edinburgh,  the  capital ;  Dundee,  which  manu- 
factures sail-cloth  and  other  coarse  fabrics;  and  Aber- 
deen, a  large  sea-port,  are  important  cities. 

In  Ireland,  Dublin  is  the  capital  and  largest  city.  Bel- 
fast manufactures  more  linen  goods  than  any  other  city  in 
the  world.     Cork  and  Limerick  are  also  important  cities. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  does  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
include?  What  other  possessions  has  it.'  What  is  meant  by  the  British  Empire? 
— 2.  In  what  does  the  chief  wealth  of  Great  Britain  consist  ?  What  is  said  of  agricult- 
ure } — 3.  Of  the  mines  of  Great  Britain  ? — 4.  Of  the  manufactures  ?  Name  the  most 
important. — 5.  What  is  said  of  the  commerce.' — 6.  Of  the  government? — 7.  What  is 
said  of  London  ?  Liverpool  ?  Manchester  ?  Leeds  and  Bradford  ?  Sheffield  ?  Bir- 
mingham ?  Newcastle  ?  Merthyr  Tydvil  and  Swansea  ?  Glasgow  ?  Edinburgh  ? 
Dundee?    Aberdeen?     Dublin?     Belfast?     Cork  and  Limerick? 

(II.) — 1.  Name  the  most  important  British  colonies.  What  other  possessions  has 
the  United  Kingdom  ? — 5.  How  many  merchant  vessels  has  Great  Britain  ?  How 
many  seamen  ?  In  what  are  they  engaged  ?  With  what  country  is  the  chief  trade  ? 
How  is  the  foreign  commerce  protected  ?  How  is  the  navy  made  effective  ?  Name 
the  depots.  In  what  do'the  several  countries  of  Europe  differ?  What  rivalries  exist? 
What  is  the  result?  What  is  said  of  the  standing  armies?  Of  the  navies?  What 
country  of  Europe  has  the  most  powerful  navy  ?  By  what  means  are  these  armies  and 
navies  maintained  ?  What  is  the  consequence  ?  What  is  said  of  the  army  and  navy 
of  the  United  States? — 6.  Describe  the  government  of  Great  Britain. 


WESTERN  AND  CENTRAL  EUROPE:  QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP.— REVIEW  EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 


93 


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94 


FRANCE.— ITALY. 


GATHERING  CORK. 


The  chief  coloiiiiil  possessions  of  Spain  are  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and 
the  Philippine  Islands  ;  those  of  Portugal  are  the  Cape  Verde 
and  the  Madeira  Islands,  and  Lower  Guinea  in  Africa. 

4.  France. — The  greater  part  of  the  people  of  France 
are  -engaged  in  agriculture.  In 
the  extent  of  its  commerce  and 
the  value  of  its  manufactures  it 
is  second  only  to  Great  Britain. 
Coal-mines  near  Belgium  and  in 
the  Cevennes  furnish  an  abun- 
dance of  fuel  for  steam-power. 

The  country  is  covered  with 
a  network  of  railways.  Its  four 
great  rivers,  the  Garonne,  the 
Loire,  the  Seine,  and  the  Rhone, 
are  navigable  for  small  steamers, 
and  are  connected  by  canals. 

The  leading  exports  are  wines 
and  liquors,  silks,  woollens,  cot- 
tons, jewelry,  and  hardware. 

5.  Paris,  the  capital  of  France, 
is  the  largest  city  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe.  It  is  a  great 
centre  of  learning,  fashion,  and 
the  fine  arts.  It  is  noted  for  its 
magnificent  public  buildings,  its 
numerous  and  excellent  literary 
and  scientific  institutions,  and  its  varied  and  tasteful 
manufactures.  It  is  the  central  point  of  nearly  all  the 
railways  of  the  country.  Lyons,  the  second  city,  is  the 
chief  seat  of  the   silk  manufacture.     Amoncr  the  other 


large  cities  are  Marseilles,  the  most  important  port ;  Bor- 
deaux, the  principal  depot  for  wines  and  brandies ;  Lille, 
noted  for  its  cloths  and  cotton  and  linen  goods;  and 
Havre,  the  port  of  Paris. 

The  foreign  possessions  of  France  are  quite  extensive.  Algeria,  in 
Africa,  and  the  island  of  Corsica  are  provinces  having  represent- 
atives in  the  French  Legislative  Assembly.  Besides  these  there 
are  colonies  in  Africa,  the  West  Indies,  Guiana,  the  Indian  Ocean, 
Polynesia,  India,  and  Indo-China. 

6.  Italy. — Italy  has  a  large  export  trade  in  olive-oil, 
fruits,  sulphur,  and  in  manufactures  of  silk,  linen,  and 
straw. 

The  Po  and  the  Adige  are  the  only  navigable  rivers. 
The  fertile  plain  through  which  they  flow  produces  a 
large  amount  of  wheat,  maize,  and  rice. 

7.  Rome,  the  capital  of  Italy,  is  the  most  celebrated  city 
in  history.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Roman  Em- 
pire. It  is  the  residence  of  the  Pope,  who  is  the  head  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Its  magnificent  ruins,  its  collections  of  ancient  sculptures  and 
paintings,  the  splendor  of  its  churches,  and  its  religious  im- 
portance attract  great  numbers  of  visitors  from  every  part  of 
the  world. 


Naples,  the  largest  city,  is  distin- 
guished for  the  beauty  of  its  situation 
and  for  its  manufactures  of  silk. 
Among  other  important  cities  are  Mi- 
lan, noted  for  its  silk  trade  and  its 
cathedral ;  Palermo,  the  largest  city  in  Sicily ;  Turin,  re- 
cently the  capital  of  Italy;  Florence,  containing  one  of 
the  finest  collections  of  paintings  and  statuary  in  the 
worid ;  Genoa,  the  birthplace  of  Columbus ;  and  Venice, 


SWITZERLAND.— AUSTRIAN    EMPIRE. 


95 


SCENE  IN  VENICE. 


remarkable  for  its  situation  on  several  small  islands,  and 
for  its  numerous  canals,  which  take  the  place  of  streets. 

8.  Nwitzerland.  —  Switzerland,  the  highest  part  of 
Europe,  is  chiefly  a  land  of  mountains. 

The  ranges  of  the  Alps,  with  their  intermediate  valleys,  cover  two 
thirds  of  the  country.  A  high  plain  between  the  Alpine  system 
and  the  Jura  Mountains  constitutes  the  remaining  third. 
This  plain  and  most  of  the  Alpine  valleys  are  carefully  cul- 
tivated, and  flocks  and  herds  abound. 

9.  Switzerland  is  a  federal  republic  of  twenty-two 
small  states  called  Cantons.  About  three  fourths  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Germans,  about  one  sixth  are 
French,  and  most  of  the  remainder  Italians. 

10.  The  manufacture  of  small  articles,  such  as 
watches,  jewelry,  silk -stuffs,  ribbons,  and  toys,  is  the 
chief  occupation ;  these  articles,  and  cattle,  butter, 
and  cheese,  are  the  chief  exports.  The  foreign  trade 
is  carried  on  chiefly  through  Germany  and  France. 

11.  Geneva,  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  watches 
and  for  its  beautiful  situation  at  the  outlet  of  Lake 
Geneva,  is  the  largest  city.  Basle,  the  second  city, 
and  Zurich  are  largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
silks.     Berne  is  the  capital. 

Questions  (T.) — 1.  What  is  said  of  the  commerce  of  Spain  and  Poitugal  ? 
Of  the  rivers?     Of  the  railways?     What  are  the  chief  exports  of  Spain?    Of 
Portugal  .>— 2.  For  what  is  Madrid  noted?     Barcelona?     Seville?     Valencia? 
Malaga? — 3.  Lisbon?     Oporto? — 4.  What  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people 
of  France?     What  is  said  of  the  commerce  and  manufactures?    Of  the  coal- 
mines ?    Of  the  railways  ?    Of  the  rivers  ?    What  are  the  principal  exports  .'—5.  What 
is  saidofParis?    Lyons?    Marseilles?    Bordeaux?    Lille?    Havre  ?— 6.  What  are  the 
chief  exports  of  Italy?     What  are  its  chief  rivers?     What  are  the  productions  of  the 
plain  of  the  Po  ?— 7.  What  is  said  of  Rome  ?     Naples  ?     Milan  ?     Palermo?     Turin  ? 
Florence?     Genoa?     Venice? — 8.  Which  is  the  most  elevated  country  in  Europe? 
What  is  the  general  character  of  the  country? — 9.  What  is  the  form  of  government  ? 
How  many  states  are  there?     What  are  they  called?     Who  are  the  inhabitants.'— 
10.  What  is  the  chief  occupation  ?     What  are  the  chief  exports?     How  is  the  foreign 
trade  carried  on  ?— 1 1.  What  is  said  of  Geneva  ?     Basle  and  Zurich  ?    Berne  ? 

(II.) — 3.  What  is  said  of  the  foreign  possessions  of  Spain  and  Portugal  ? — 5.  Of 
France  ?  What  other  possessions  ? — 7.  What  are  the  chief  attractions  of  Rome  ? — 
8.  What  mountains  cover  a  large  part  of  Switzerland ?     Where  is  the  high  plain? 


XCI. 

AUSTEIA.-TUEKEY-GEEEOE.-DENMAEK. 

1.  Austrian  Empire.  —  The  proper  ofificial  title  of 
Austria  is  "  The  Austro-Hungarian  Empire." 

It  IS  divided  into  two  distinct  and  nearly  independent  groups  of 
provinces.  Each  group  has  a  government  of  its  own ;  there  is 
also  a  general  government  for  the  whole  empire. 

The  Kingdom  of  Hungary  and  its  dependencies  con- 
stitute nearly  one  half  of  the  empire.  The  Emperor  of 
Austria  is  King  of  Hungary. 

The  provinces  differ  so  much  in  nationality,  race,  language,  and 
religion  that  the  empire  is  with  difficulty  held  together.  One 
fourth  of  the  people  are  Germans,  and  are  mostly  in  the  prov- 
inces bordering  on  Germany;  one  sixth  are  the  Magyars  of 
Hungary  (Mongols) ;  one  half  are  Sclaves ;  the  remainder  are 
Jews,  Gypsies,  Greeks,  etc. 

2.  The  Danube  and  its  navigable  branches  form  an 
important  system  of  water-ways,  extending  entirely  across 
the  empire.     There  are  also  numerous  railways. 

3.  The  country  is  rich  in  a  great  variety  of  agricult- 
ural productions,  valuable  minerals,  and  extensive  forests. 


The  chief  exports  are 
wheat,  wine,  salt,  wool, 
and  manufactures 
linen,  cotton,  iron,  an 
glass.    The  wines  ar 
among  the  most  eel 
ebrated  in  Europe. 


96 


ROUMANIA,  SERVIA,  AND  MONTENEGRO.— TURKISH   EMPIRE.-GREECE.— DENMARK. 


4.  Vienna,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  the  largest  city ; 
it  is  the  chief  centre  of  manufactures  and  domestic  com- 
merce, and  is  connected  by  railways  with  every  part  of 
the  empire.  Buda  is  the  capital  of  Hungary.  Pesth  and 
Prague  are  the  second  and  third  cities  of  the  empire ; 
Pesth  is  the  great  emporium  of  the  Hungarian  Kingdom. 
Trieste,  the  principal  sea-port  of  the  empire,  has  an  ex- 
tensive commerce. 

5.  Roiiinania,  Servia,  and  ]?Ionteneg:ro.  —  These 
countries  were  recently  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  but 
are  now  independent  Christian  principalities. 

6.  Turkish  Empire.  —  The  Turkish  or  Ottoman 
Empire  includes  European  Turkey,  Asiatic  Turkey,  a 
large  part  of  Northeastern  Africa,  a  part  of  Arabia,  Crete, 
and  other  islands. 

Though  possessed  of  unsurpassed  natural  advantages  for  agricult- 
ure, commerce,  and  other  industries,  an  oppressive  government 
has  made  Turkey  the  lowest  of  European  countries  in  the  scale 
of  civilization. 

7.  The  inhabitants  of  European  Turkey  are  of  rtiany 
races,  languages,  and  religions.  The  Turks  are  the  gov- 
erning race,  though  they  constitute  only  a  small  part  of 
the  population ;  they  are  Mongol  Mohammedans  from 
Asia.  Bulgaria  is  a  self-governing  but  tributary  prin- 
cipality. 

8.  The  chief  exports  of  Turkey  are  tobacco,  wine,  olive- 
oil,  cotton,  fruits,  silk,  wool,  carpets,  and  Morocco  leather. 


CONSTANTINOJ'LK. 


9.  Constantinople,  beautifully  situated  on  the  Bos- 
porus, is  the  capital  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  and  the 
residence  of  the  Grand  Sultan,  or  Emperor,  who  is  also 

Adrianople  and 


the  head  of  the  Mohammedan  religion 


Salonica  are  the  chief  commercial  centres,  and  are  noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  carpets,  silks,  and  leather. 

10.  <Mreece. — Greece  may  be  divided  into  Continental 
Greece  and  Insular  Greece.  Continental  Greece  includes 
the  mainland  and  the  peninsula  of  the  Morea,  or  Pelopon- 
nesus ;  Insular  Greece  includes  the  Ionian  Islands  and 
those  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago. 

Insular  Greece  is  commercially  the  more  important. 
It  contains  one  third  of  the  population  and  all  the  larger 
towns  except  Athens  and  Patras. 

Greek  merchants  and  seamen  conduct  the  greater  part 
of  the  commerce  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Levant,  or 
eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  principal  exports  are  olive-oil,  honey,  silk,  wax, 
wine,  currants,  figs,  and  raisins. 

The  ancient  Greeks  were  celebrated  above  all  other  peoples  for 
their  valor  and  patriotism,  and  for  their  genius  in  literature,  phi- 
losophy, and  the  fine  arts.  Their  poets,  philosophers,  orators, 
historians,  architects,  and  sculptors  have  never  been  surpassed. 

.  11.  Athens,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  was  noted  in 
ancient  times  for  its  pre-eminence  in  art  and  literature. 
Syra,  or  Hermopolis,  is  the  commercial  centre ;  it  is  the 
chief  station  of  the  lines  of  steam  vessels  navigating  the 
Eastern  Mediterranean.  Zante,  Corfu,  and  Patras  are 
important  ports. 

12.  Deninarlc. —  Denmark  consists  of  a  number  of 
islands  and  the  northern  half  of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland. 
The  islands  contain  the  greater  part  of  the  population. 

13.  Agriculture  and  fishing  are  the  principal  occupa- 
tions. Horses,  cattle,  butter,  cheese,  pork,  and  grains  are 
largely  exported. 

The  colonial  possessions  are  Greenland,  Iceland,  the  Faroe  Islands, 
and  several  small  islands  in  tiie  West  Indies. 

14.  Copenhagen,  on  the  island  of  Zealand,  is  the  cap- 
ital and  largest  city.  * 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  official  title  of  Austria?  What  kingdom  is  a 
part  of  the  empire?  Who  is  its  king? — 2.  What  system  of  water-ways  is  there? 
What  other  means  of  transportation  ? — 3.  In  what  is  Austria  rich  ?  What  are  the 
principal  exports  ?  What  is  said  of  the  wines  ? — 4.  For  what  is  Vienna  noted  ? 
Buda?  Pesth?  Prague?  Trieste?  —  5.  What  is  said  of  Roumania,  Servia,  and 
Montenegro? — 0.  What  does  the  Turkish  or  Ottoman  Empire  include? — 7.  How  do 
the  inhabitants  differ?  What  is  said  of  the  Turks?  What  is  said  of  Bulgaria? — 
8.  What  are  the  exports  of  Turkey? — i).  For  what  is  Constantinople  noted?  Adrian- 
ople and  Salonica  ? — 10.  How  may  Greece  be  divided  ?  What  does  Continental 
Greece  include?  Insular  Greece?  Which  is  the  more  important  division  of  Greece? 
What  is  said  of  it?  Who  conduct  most  of  the  commerce  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Levant?  What  does  Levant  mean?  What  are  the  exports  of  Greece? — II.  For 
what  is  Athens  noted  ?  Syra  ?  What  important  ports  ? — 1 2.  Of  what  does  Denmark 
consist  ?  Where  is  most  of  the  population  ?— 13.  What  are  the  chief  occupations? 
Exports  ? — 1 4.  For  what  is  Copenhagen  noted  ? 

(II.) — 1.  How  is  the  empire  divided  ?  How  governed  ?  Why  is  Austria  governed 
with  difficulty?  What  part  of  the  people  are  Germans?  What  part  Mongols  ?  What 
race  is  most  numerous?  What  other  peoples  in  Austria? — (!.  What  is  the  rank  of 
Turkey  in  the  scale  of  civilization  ? — 10.  For  what  were  the  ancient  Greeks  celebrated  ? 
— l.S.  What  colonial  jiossessions  has  Denmark? 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP   OF  THE   GERMAN    EMPIRE,  NETHERLANDS,  AND   BELGIUM. 


.97 


GERMAN   EMPIRE        f 


Longitude      East     87     from      Waslmigton. 


\fiopjfrighi,  1875,  6y  Harper  A   BrotAer*.] 


XCII. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

Germany. — What  two  seas  bound  Germany  on  the  north?  What 
kingdom?  What  empire  east  ?  What  empire  south  ?  What  republic  ? 
What  three  countries  on  the  west  ?  What  German  state  north  of  the 
Prussian  province  of  Brandenburg?  What  one  nearly  enclosed  by 
Hanover  ?  What  kingdoms  between  Prussia  and  Austria  ?  What 
group  of  small  states  west  of  Saxony?  {77ie  Saxes.)  What  kingdom 
southwest  of  Saxony?  West  of  Bavaria  ?  What  state  west  of  Wurtem- 
berg?  What  state  between  Baden  and  Prussia?  (Hesse.)  What  Ger- 
man province  west  of  Baden  ?     {Alsace-Lorraine.) 

Prussia. — What  five  rivers  cross  Prussia  ?  What  mountains  in  Prus- 
sian Saxony?  What  city  in  the  Rhine  Provinces?  Which  are  the  two 
chief  branches  of  the  Rhine  ?  What  city  on  the  Main  ?  In  Westphalia  ? 
In  Hanover?  In  Prussian  Saxony?  On  what  river  is  Magdeburg? 
What  city  is  the  capital  of  Prussia  ?  On  what  river  is  Berlin  ?  What' 
port  near  the  mouth  of  the  Oder  ?    What  city  in  Silesia  ?    What  mount- 

31 


ains  between  Silesia  and  Bohemia?    What  city  on  the  Gulf  of  Dantzic? 
What  one  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Prussia? 

Bavaria. — What  mountains  east  of  Bavaria?  What  Austrian  prov- 
ince? What  river  crosses  Bavaria?  What  German  states  form  the 
northern  and  western  boundaries  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  On  what 
river  ?  What  city  nearly  west  of  Munich  ?  What  one  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  kingdom  ? 

Saxony. — What  German  states  border  on  Saxony?  What  Austrian 
province?  What  mountains  between  them?  What  city  is  the  capital? 
What  city  in  the  northern  part? 

Other  States. — What  city  is  the  capital  of  Wurtemberg  ?  The  capital 
of  Baden  ?  Of  Alsace  ?  What  port  on  the  Elbe  near  its  mouth  ?  What 
city  on  the  Weser?     On  the  Baltic  northeast  of  Hamburg? 

Netherlands. — What  water  on  the  west  and  north?  What  country 
south?  What  three  provinces  of  Prussia  on  the  east?  What  sea  in  the 
Netherlands  ?  What  great  river  crosses  the  kingdom  ?  What  city  on  the 
ZuyderZee?  What  one  south  of  Amsterdam  ?  West  of  Utrecht  ?  South- 
west of  Leyden  ?    Southeast  of  The  Hague  ?    What  city  is  the  capital  ? 


08 


THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE  AND  NETHERLANDS  AND  BELGIUM  :  REVIEW  EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 


Belgium. — What  German  provinces  east  of  Belgium  ?  What  one 
south?  What  country  southwest  ?  What  two  livers  in  Belgium  ?  Into 
what  do  they  flow?  What  mountains  near  the  French  border?  What 
cities  on  or  near  the  Scheldt?  What  city  west  of  Antwerp?  Northwest 
of  Ghent?     On  the  Meuse?     What  city  is  the  capital? 


XCIII. 

EEVIEW  EXEKCISES. 


Cities, — /«  what  part  of  the  country  1     Hotv  situated  1  —  Berlin? 
Breslau?    Cologne?    Magdeburg?    Konigsberg?    Hanover?    Frankfort- 


on-Main  ?  Dantzic  ?  Stettin  ?  Barmen  ?  Posen  ?  Munich  ?  Nurem- 
berg ?  Augsburg  ?  Dresden  ?  Leipsic  ?  Stuttgart  ?  Hamburg  ? 
Bremen?  Lubec?  Carlsruhe?  Strasbourg?  The  Hague?  Am.- 
sterdam  ?  Rotterdam?  Utrecht?  Leyden  ?  Brussels?  Antwerp? 
Ghent  ?     Liege  ?    Bruges  ? 

Mountains.— W7/<fr^  «/-« ///^_)' /—Bohmerwald  ?  Erz?  Riesen?  Harz? 
Ardennes  ? 

"^VJ^n,.— Where  does  it  rise?  In  what  direction  does  it  flo7v'i  Into 
what  body  of  water  1 — Rhine?  Moselle?  Main?  Weser ?  Elbe? 
Oder?    Vistula?     Meuse?     Scheldt? 

Seas  and  G\iUa.— Where  is  ///—North  Sea? 
Zee  ?    Gulf  of  Dantzic  ? 


Baltic  Sea?    Zuyder 


GERMAN    EMPIRE    AND    NETHERLANDS    AND    BELGIUM. 


XCIV. 

DESCEIPTION. 


BHKENBKEITSTUIN. 


1.  The  German  Empire  is  a  confederation  of  twenty- 
six  states,  and  is  the  greatest  miUtary  power  in  the  world. 
It  contains  four  kingdoms — Prussia,  the  largest  and  most 
populous,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Wurtemberg. 

Besides  these  kingdoms  there  are  grand  duchies,  duchies,  princi- 
palities, and  the  free  cities  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Lubec. 

2.  Government.  —  The  general  government  of  the 
empire  is  a  limited  monarchy.  All  the  separate  states 
are  also  limited  monarchies,  excepting  the  three  free 
cities,  which  are  democratic  republics.  The  King  of 
Prussia  is  the  German  Emperor. 

The  Legislature  of  the  empire  consists  of  two  bodies — the  Federal 
Council,  consisting  of  59  members,  and  somewhat  resembling 
the  English  House  of  Lords  ;  and  the  Reichstag,  consisting  of 
397  members,  who  are  elected  by  universal  suffrage. 


The  Kingdom  of  Prussia  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
monarchies  of  Europe.  It  is  noted  for  its  great  and  effi- 
cient armies,  the  general  intelligence  of  its  people,  and 
the  most  complete  and  comprehensive  system  of  public 
schools  in  the  v.orld. 

3.  Population.  —  The  total  German  population  of 
Europe  is  about  fifty-two  millions.  Of  these  forty-one 
millions  are  inhabitants  of  the  empire.  Austria  has 
about  eight  millions,  Switzerland  two  millions,  and  Rus- 
sia about  one  million. 

The  Germans  are  remarkable  for  their  attainments  in 
science,  literature,  and  art,  and  for  their  military  skill. 

4.  iVIannfiictares. — The  manufactures  are  varied  and 
extensive.  The  exports  are  wheat,  wine,  zinc,  and  manu- 
factured articles.  Prussia  furnishes  about  half  the  zinc 
used  in  the  world. 

5.  The  principal  cities  of  the  German  Empire  are 
Berlin,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Prussia ;  Breslau, 
the  principal  wool  market  on  the  Continent  of  Europe ; 
Cologne,  the  chief  city  of  the  Rhine  Provinces,  noted 
for  its  cathedral  and  its  trade  in  wines ;  Konigsberg  and 
Dantzic,  the  principal  grain  ports  of  Prussia ;  Stettin,  an 
important  port ;  Coblentz  and  Magdeburg,  famous  for 
their  strong  fortifications  ;  Barmen,  celebrated  for  its  ex- 
tensive cotton  manufactures ;  and  Frankfort,  the  financial 


THE   GERMAN    EMPIRE.— HOLLAND  AND   BELGIUM. 


99 


centre   and   the   emporium   of  inland 
trade. 

Of  the  three  free  cities,  or  Hanse 
Towns,  Hamburg  is  the  chief  commer- 
cial city  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  the  depot  of  trade  with  America 
and  Great  Britain ;  and  Bremen  is  the 
principal  port  for  the  German  emigra- 
tion to  the  United  States. 

Dresden,  the  capital  of  Saxony,  is 
noted  for  its  art  galleries ;  Leipsic,  for 
its  extensive  manufacture  of  books  and 
for  its  annual  fairs. 

Munich,  the  capital  of  Bavaria,  is  noted  for  its  art  gal 
leries  and  its  manufacture  of  telescopes  and  other  scien. 
tific  instruments. 


Among  other  cities  of  Germany  are  Stuttgart,  cele- 
brated for  its  vineyards;  and  Strasbourg,  for  its  cathedral 
and  for  its  famous  sieges. 

6.  Netherlands  and  llelg^iiini. — These  countries  are 
densely  populated,  Belgium  being  the  most  crowded  part 
of  Europe. 

7.  Possessions. — The  colonial  possessions  of  the  Neth- 
erlands are,  next  to  those  of  Great  Britain,  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  valuable  in  the  world. 

They  include  the  most  important  portions  of  the  East  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, Dutch  Guiana,  and  several  islands  in  the  West  Indies. 

8.  Snrrace. — A  considerable  portion  of  Belgium,  and 
a'  still  larger  part  of  the  Netherlands,  lie  below  the  level 
of  the  sea. 

The  waters  of  the  ocean  are  kept  out,  in  part,  by  long  hills  of  sand 
called  "dunes,"  which  have  been  thrown  up  by  the  waves  and 
winds,  and  in  part  by  great  banks  of  earth  called  dikes,  which 
face  the  sea  and  extend  up  the  rivers. 

The  southern  part  of  Belgium  is  mountainous,  and  is 
rich  in  timber,  coal,  and  iron. 

These  supply  the  elements  of  mechanical  power,  and,  together  with 
the  abundance  of  labor  and  the  number  of  the  ports,  railways, 
navigable  rivers,  and  large  canals,  place  these  countries  among 


.^.^e^^-  "'■ 


the  foremost  in  the  world  in  all  the  forms  of  mechanical  industry, 
in  foreign  and  domestic  commerce,  and  in  wealth. 

9.  Occupations.— Agriculture  is  the  principal  occu- 
pation in  the  Netherlands,  and  manufactures  and  mining 
in  Belgium. 

10.  Commerce.  —  The  foreign  trade  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  world.  The  Netherlands  export  fish, 
dairy  products,  and  the  produce  of  their  extensive  East 
and  West  Indian  colonies.  Belgium  exports  a  great 
amount  and  variety  of  fine  manufactured  goods,  includ- 
ing those  of  silk,  cotton,  wool,  linen,  leather,  and  iron. 

11.  Amsterdam,  the  largest  city  of  the  Netherlands,  is 
remarkable  for  its  many  street  canals,  its  great  dikes,  and 
its  extensive  maritime  commerce ;  and  Rotterdam,  the 
second  city,  for  its  distilled  liquors.  The  Hague,  Utrecht, 
and  Leyden  are  important  cities. 

The  chief  cities  of  Belgium  are  Brussels,  the  capital 
and  largest  city,  celebrated  for  its  manufactures  of  lace 
and  carpets ;  Antwerp,  the  principal  port  and  fortress  of 
Belgium ;  Ghent,  second  only  to  Manchester  in  England 
in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  ;  Liege,  noted  for  fire- 
arms and  cutlery ;  and  Bruges,  celebrated  for  its  manu- 
factures of  linen  and  lace. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  German  Kmpire  ?  How  many  and  what  kingdoms 
does  it  contain  ? — 2.  What  is  the  government  of  the  empire  ?  Of  the  separate  states  ? 
Of  the  free  cities .'  Who  is  the  German  Emperor  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Prussia  ?  For  what  is  it  noted  ?— 3.  What  is  the  total  German  popnlation  of  Europe .' 
Of  the  German  Empire.'  Of  Austria?  Of  Switzerland.'  Of  Russia?  For  what  are 
the  Germans  reniarka1)le .' — 4.  What  is  said  of  the  manufactures  ?  What  are  the  ex- 
ports?— 5.  What  is  said  of  Berlin  ?  Breslau  ?  Cologne?  Konlgsberg?  Dantzic  ? 
Stettin?  Coblentz  and  Magdeburg?  Barmen?  Frankfort?  Hamburg?  Bremen? 
Dresden?  Leipsic?  Munich?  Stuttgart?  Strasbourg? — 6.  What  is  said  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  Netherlands  and  Belgium  ? — 7.  Of  the  colonial  possessions  of  the  Nether- 
lands.'— 8.  Of  the  surface  of  the  Netherlands  and  Belgium?  Of  the  southern  part  of 
Belgium  ?  In  what  is  it  rich  .' — 9.  What  are  the  leading  occupations  in  these  countries  ? 
— 10.  What  is  said  of  the  foreign  trade  ?  What  are  the  principal  exports  of  the  Nether- 
lands? Of  Belgium  ? — 11.  For  what  is  Amsterdam  noted?  Rotterdam?  What  other 
large  cities?     For  what  is  Brussels  noted?    Antwerp?    Ghent?    Liege?     Bruges? 

(IL) — 1.  What  other  political  divisions  are  included  in  the  German  Empire  ? — 2.  Of 
what  does  the  legislature  consist? — 7.  Which  are  the  colonial  possessions  of  the  Neth- 
erlands.'— 8.  How  are  the  Netherlands  and  Belgium  protected  from  the  waters  of  the 
ocean  ?  In  what  respects  are  these  countries  among  the  foremost  in  the  world  ? 
What  are  the  causes? 


PHYSICAL  ASIA:   QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP.— ANIMALS. 


101 


PHYSICAL  ASIA:   DESCRIPTION.— QUESTIONS  ON  THE   MAP.— REVIEW  EXERCISES. 


103 


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104 


PHYSICAL  ASIA. 


In  the  south  and  southwest  are  immense  grassy  regions,  called 
steppes,  the  home  of  barbarous  nomadic  Tartars,  who  subsist 
principally  upon  sheep  and  horses. 

Between  these  belts  is  a  vast  ever-green  forest,  abounding  with 
fur-bearing  and  other  wild  animals.  Its  cleared  portions  are  in- 
habited by  Europeans. 

4.  Desert  Asia  is  a  broad  belt  of  high  and  dry  pla- 
teaus, extending  from  the  Red  and  Mediterranean  seas 
almost  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  plateau 
of  Thibet  is  the  highest  in  the  world. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  this  belt  excepting  Arabia  has  great  extremes 
of  climate — hot  and  dry  summers  and  severe  winters.  The  belt 
of  deserts  is  broken  by  the  low  and  fertile  plain  of  the  Euphrates, 
once  the  seat  of  powerful  empires.  The  mountain  slopes  and 
other  fertile  portions  of  the  plateau  contain  populous  agricultural 
communities,  civilized  but  not  enlightened.  The  remaining  por- 
tions are  inhabited  by  nomadic  tribes. 


SAND-SPOUTS   IN    THE   DESERT. 


5.  Peninsular  Asia  is  the  most  important  division  of 
the  continent.  It  crosses  and  includes  the  western  part 
of  the  Plateau  Belt.  Its  southeastern  peninsulas,  Hindo- 
stan,  Indo-China,  Corea,  with  the  projecting  portion  of 
China,  contain  at  least  one  half  of  all  the  human  race. 
The  densest  populations  are  found  in  the  low  plains. 

Palestine,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Turkey,  is  noted 
not  only  as  the  Holy  Land  of  the  Bible,  but  also  for  its 
physical  peculiarities.  It  contains  the  Dead  Sea.  which 
is  situated  in  a  most  remarkable  depression  of  the  earth. 
The  surface  of  this  sea  is  about  1300  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  Mediterranean.  Its  waters  are  intensely  salt,  and, 
except  near  the  mouth  of  the  River  Jordan,  which  flows 
into  it,  contain  no  animal  life. 


East  of  the  Indus  River  the  climate  is  hot  and  moist ;  west  of  the 
Indus  it  is  hot  and  dry. 

Judaism,  Christianity,  Mohammedanism,  Brahminism,  and  Bud- 
dhism, which  are  the  chief  religions  of  mankind,  originated  in 
Peninsular  Asia. 

6.  Insular  Asia  includes  the  richest  and  most  im- 
portant archipelagoes  in  the  world. 

Note.— With  the  exception  of  Ceylon  and  Japan,  Insular  Asia  will  be  described 
in  a  separate  division,  under  the  name  of  Malaysia. 

7.  Two  races,  the  Mongol  and  the  Caucasian,  occupy 
nearly  the  whole  of  Asia.  The  Himalaya,  Hindoo-koosh, 
and  Caucasus  Mountains  separate  them.  Nearly  all  to 
the  north  of  these  mountains  are  Mongols ;  nearly  all  to 
the  south  are  Caucasians.  Malay  Peninsula  and  parts  of 
Insular  Asia  are  occupied  by  the  Malay  race. 

8.  Ye^etation. — The  bamboo,  aloe,  ebony,  and  san- 
dal-wood, among  trees ;  the 
banana,  date,  fig,  olive,  tam- 
arind, and  cocoa,  among 
fruits;  cinnamon,  cloves,  and 
nutmegs,  among  spices ;  be- 
sides sugar,  hemp,  flax,  rice, 
opium,  tea,  coffee,  and  cot- 
ton, indicate  the  great  diver- 
sity of  Asiatic  vegetation. 

9.  Animals.  —  Among 
the  chief  animals  of  Asia 
are  the  tiger,  elephant,  tapir, 
buffalo,  rhinoceros,  orang- 
outang, arctic  fox,  pango- 
lin, or  ant-eater,  zebra,  and 
camel.  Poisonous  serpents, 
the  crocodile,  and  other  rep- 
tiles abound  in  southern 
Asia. 

Our    domesticated    animals, 

the  horse,  ass,  goat,  sheep, 

ox,  hog,  our  common  fowls,  all  of  our  grains  excepting  maize,  and 

many  of  our  most  important  fruits  and  vegetables,  were  derived 

from  Asia. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  said  of  the  size  of  Asia?  In  what  particulars  does 
Asia  surpass  all  other  continents  ?— 2.  Into  how  many  and  what  physical  belts  may  it 
be  divided?— 3.  Wh.it  plain  occupies  the  greater  part  of  Arctic  Asia? — 4.  What  is 
Desert  Asia?  What  is  its  extent?  Which  is  the  highest  plateau?— .5.  Which  is  the 
most  important  division  of  the  continent?  What  other  belt  does  it  partly  include? 
What  is  said  of  the  population  ?  For  what  is  Palestine  noted  ?  W' hat  remarkable  sea 
does  it  contain?  What  is  said  of  the  surface  of  the  De.id  Sea?  Of  its  waters?— «. 
What  does  Insular  Asia  include  ?— 7.  What  two  races  occupy  nearly  the  whole  of  Asia? 
By  what  are  they  separated  ?  Where  are  the  Mongols  ?  The  Caucasians  ?  The  Ma- 
lays ?— 8.  What  is  said  of  the  vegetation  ?— t).  Name  the  principal  animals  of  Asia. 

(II.)— 3.  Between  what  limits  does  the  Siberian  Plain  extend  ?  What  is  the  char- 
acter of  its  climate  ?  Of  what  does  it  consist  ?  Describe  the  northern  belt.  Southern 
belt.  Middle  belt.— 4.  What  is  the  clim.ite  of  Desert  Asia?  By  what  is  the  belt  of 
deserts  broken  ?  By  whom  are  the  plateaus  inhabited  ?— .5.  What  is  the  climate  cast 
of  the  Indus  River?  West?  What  religions  have  origin.ited  in  Peninsular  Asia? 
— U.  What  animals  were  derived  from  Asia?  Wh.-it  other  things? 
[For  Sections  XCVII.  and  XCVIII  ,  see  p.  103.] 


POLITICAL    ASIA. 


XCIX. 

DESOEIPTION. 

1.  Asiatic  Ra§sia. — Asiatic  Russia  covers  more  than 
one  third  of  Asia.  It  includes  Siberia,  Russian  Turkestan, 
and  Georgia  or  Trans-Caucasia,  and  extends  from  Corea 
to  the  Black  Sea. 

2.  Hiberia. — Among  the  resources  of  Siberia  are  furs 
from  the  forest  belt ;  gold,  chiefly  from  East  Siberia ;  cop- 
per, iron,  and  gold  from  the  Ural ;  and  fossil  ivory  from 
the  islands  of  New  Siberia. 

The  longest  inland  commercial  route  on  the  globe  ex- 
tends from  Pekin,  through  Maimatchin,  Irkoutsk,  Tomsk, 
and  Tobolsk,  to  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg. 

The  population  of  Siberia  is  about  4,000,000,  mostly  occupying  the 
river-valleys  in  the  south.  A  large  part  are  exiles  or  descendants 
of  exiles  from  European  Russia,  whence  about  12,000  criminals 
are  banished  every  year.  The  worst  are  condemned  to  labor  in 
the  mines.  Most  of  the  others  take  their  families  with  them, 
and  receive  small  grants  of  land. 

Irkoutsk  is  the  principal  city.     Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  Omsk, 

Barnaul,  and  Tinmen  are  important  commercial  towns. 

3.  Amooria,  a  province  of  Siberia,  was  recently  acquired 
from  China. 

4.  Itus.siaii  Turkestan. — Russian  Turkestan  includes 


the  greater  part  of  the  country  between  the  Caspian 
Sea  and  the  Altai  Mountains.  It  contains  a  number 
of  districts  called  khanates,  and  several  populous  cities. 
Many  of  these  khanates  have  been  recently  annexed  by 
Russia.  The  native  ruler§  are  continued,  but  only  as 
vassals  of  Russia.  The  inhabitants  are  Mohammedan 
Tartars. 

5.  Geor^a,  or  Trans-Caucasia,  has  a  population  nearly 
as  large  as  that  of  Siberia.  The  people  are  said  to  be  the 
handsomest  in  the  world.  Tiflis  is  the  capital,  and  has 
a  great  caravan  trade  with  Persia. 

6.  Chinese  Empire. — The  Chinese  Empire  includes 
China,  the  dependent  provinces  of  Mantchooria,  Mongolia, 
Kashgaria,  and  Thibet,  and  the  tributary  kingdom  of  Corea. 

The  Chinese  Empire  is  one  of  five  great  governments 
which  together  cover  more  than  half  of  the  land  surface 
of  the  globe.  These  are,  in  the  order  of  their  area,  the 
British  Empire,  the  Russian  Empire,  the  Chinese  Empire, 
the  United  States,  and  Brazil. 

7.  Population. — The  total  population  of  the  empire  is 
estimated  at  435,000,000,  and  consists  chiefly  of  Mongols. 
The  dependent  provinces  contain  only  about  30,000,000 ; 
all  the  rest  are  in  China,  five  sixths  of  them  being  in  the 
eastern  half  of   it.      This  is  the  densest  population  in 


106 


POLITICAL   ASIA. 


the  world.  Nearly  three  millions  live  in  boats  and  in 
floating  gardens  and  houses  on  rafts  in  the  rivers  and 
canals. 

8.  GoYernment  and  Religion. — The  government  is 
an  absolute  monarchy.  The  prevailing  religion  is  Bud- 
dhism. 

9.  Occupations. — Agriculture,  which  is  regarded  as 
the  noblest  of  employments,  is  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  Chinese.  The  implements  used  are  very  rude  and 
simple. 


STREET   IN   CHINA. 


10.  Productions. — Rice,  tea,  cotton,  and  silk  are  the 
great  staples,  and  furnish  the  principal  food,  drink,  and 
clothing.  All  the  manufactures  are  the  products  of  hand 
labor;  those  of  silk  and  porcelain  are  the  most  valuable. 

11.  Commerce. — The  domestic  commerce  of  the  Chi- 
nese Empire  is  unparalleled  in  extent.  Its  chief  water- 
routes  are  the  large  canals  and  the  navigable  rivers  and 
lakes.  The  mountains,  steppes,  and  deserts  of  the  interior 
plateaus  are  crossed  by  caravans  of  camels.  A  great  cara- 
van trade  with  Russia  has  its  depot  at  Maimatchin,  where 
tea  is  exchanged  for  furs,  woollens,  etc.  The  extensive 
maritime  commerce  is  in  the  hands  of  foreigners. 


The  principal  exports  are  tea  and  raw  silk.  The  chief 
imports  are  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  opium,  and  wheat. 

12.  Education. — Education  is  compulsory.  All  adult 
males  are  able  to  read  and  write,  and  possess  a  knowledge 
of  the  elements  of  arithmetic. 

Government  officers  of  all  grades  below  the  emperor  are  selected 
by  means  of  a  public  competitive  examination  to  test  their  schol- 
arship, and  may  be  of  the  most  humble  parentage. 

The  Chinese  are  not  surpassed  by  any  people  in  the  world  in 
frugality  and  industry  and  in  skill  in  their  various  occupations. 
They  have  possessed  the  mariner's  compass  and  practised  the 
arts  of  printing,  silk-making,  and  paper-making  from  time  im- 
memorial. They  were  also  very  early  acquainted  with  the  man- 
ufacture of  gunpowder,  but  did  not  make  use  of  it  in  war. 

The  people  are  unwarlike.  When  not  on  duty  the  soldiers  are 
employed  in  useful  trades. 

Among  the  more  important  public  works  are  excellent  roads,  great 
canals,  and  the  famous  wall,  more  than  1 200  miles  long,  completed 
B.C.  21 1,  to  keep  the  Mongol  Tartars  out  of  China. 

13.  No  other  country  contains  so  many  gi-eat  and  walled 
cities  as  China.  Their  population  is  variously  reported, 
and  changes  rapidly. 

Pekin  is  the  capital  and  largest  city.  Shanghai,  the 
chief  port,  is  the  principal  depot  of  the  great  basin  of  the 
Yang  tse  Kiang,  and  has  three  fourths  of  the  foreign  com- 
merce. Han-chau,  a  triple  city,  is  the  great  depot  of  in- 
ternal trade.  Canton  is  the  second  city  in  foreign  trade. 
Fuh-chau  is  the  chief  place  of  shipment  of  black  tea. 
Nankin,  once  the  populous  capital  of  China,  is  now  nearly 
all  in  ruins.  Among  other  places  are  Seoul,  or  King- 
kitao,  the  capital  of  Corea ;  Maimatchin,  the  depot  of  the 
Russian  trade ;  and  Lassa,  the  capital  of  Thibet  and  the 
residence  of  the  Grand  Lama,  or  Buddhist  chief-priest. 

14.  Japan.  —  The  Empire  of  Japan  consists  of  four 
large  mountainous  islands  and  many  smaller  ones. 

15.  Productions. — The  agricultural  and  manufactured 
products  and  the  exports  are  similar  to  those  of  China. 

16.  Crovernment.  —  The  government  of  Japan  is  a 
constitutional  monarchy.  The  emperor  is  called  the  Mi- 
kado. After  centuries  of  nearly  complete  exclusion,  for- 
eigners have  recently  been  admitted  to  Japan.  Since  that 
time  the  Japanese  have  been  quick  to  appreciate  and 
adopt  the  arms,  uniform,  naval  and  military  systems,  light- 
houses, steam  power,  and  telegraph  of  Europeans.  They 
surpass  the  Chinese  in  intelligence,  and  equal  them  in  me- 
chanical skill.  They  are  of  the  same  Mongol  race,  and 
have  similar  religious  beliefs,  but  differ  greatly  in  lan- 
guage and  political  institutions.  In  many  respects  their 
civilization  compares  favorably  with  that  of  any  other 
nation.  The  elementary  education  of  males  is  universal, 
systematic,  and  compulsory. 


JAPAN.— BRITISH   INDIA  AND  INDOCHINA. 


107 


17.  Tokio,  known  as  Yedo  un- 
til 1868,  is  the  national  capital 
and  largest  city,  and  has  an  ex- 
tensive commerce ;  its  port,  Yo- 
kohama, is  the  chief  depot  of  the 
foreign  trade ;  Kioto  was  former- 
ly the  capital  and  the  residence 
of  the  emperor;  Ozaka,  the  sec- 
ond city,  is  the  principal  port  of 
the  domestic  commerce  of  the 
empire. 


Questions  (I.)  —  1.  How  much  of  Asia  is 
occupied  by  the  Russian  Empire  ?  What  coun- 
tries does  it  include  ?  What  is  its  extent  ? — 
2.  Name  the  principal  resources  of  Siberia,  and 
whence  derived.  What  long  route  of  inland 
commerce,  and  through  what  cities  ?  What  is 
said  of  Irkoutsk?  What  other  towns? — 3.  What 
is  said  of  Amooria  .>  —  4.  What  does  Russian 
Turkestan  include  ?  How  is  it  governed .'  Who 
are  the  inhabitants  ? — n.  What  is  said  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Georgia?  What  is  said  of  the  Georgians? 
Of  Tiflis  ?  —  6.  What  does  the  Chinese  Empire 
include  ?  Name  in  their  order  the  five  most  ex- 
tensive governments  of  the  globe.  What  part  of 
the  land  surface  do  they  cover  ? — 7.  What  is  the 
total  population  of  the  empire  ?  Of  what  race 
are  they  ?  How  is  the  population  distributed  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  water  population? — 8.  What 

form  of  government  in  China  ?  What  is  the  prevailing  religion  ? — 9.  What  is  the 
principal  occupation  ?  How  is  it  regarded  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  implements 
used? — 10.  Name  the  staple  productions.  What  do  they  furnish?  What  is  said  of 
manufactures?  Which  are  the  most  valuable? — 11.  What  is  said  of  the  domestic 
commerce  of  China?  What  are  its  water-routes?  Where  are  caravans  employed? 
How  is  the  trade  with  Russia  conducted  ?  Which  are  the  principal  exports  ?  The 
principal  imports? — 12.  What  is  said  of  education.? — 13.  What  is  said  of  the  cities 
of  China?  Of  their  population?  What  is  said  of  Pekin?  Shanghai?  Han-chau  ? 
Canton  ?  Fuh-chau  ?  Nankin  ?  Seoul  or  Kingkitao  ?  Maimatchin  ?  Lassa  ? — 
14.  Of  what  does  the  Empire  of  Japan  consist.' — 15.  What  is  said  of  the  agricultural 
and  manufactured  products  and  the  exports  ? — 16.  Of  the  government?  What  is  the 
emperor  called?  What  has  been  the  policy  of  the  Japanese  towards  foreigners? 
What  European  inventions  have  the  Japanese  adopted  ?  How  do  the  Japanese 
compare  with  the  Chinese  ?  What  is  said  of  their  civilization  ?  Of  education  ? — 
17.  For  what  is  Tokio  or  Yedo  noted  ?    Yokohama?    Kioto?    Ozaka? 

(II.) — 2.  What  is  the  population  of  Siberia?  Where  located?  What  is  said  of  the 
exiles.' — 12.  How  are  the  government  ofificers  of  China  selected?  For  what  are  the 
Chinese  distinguished?  What  arts  have  they  long  practised?  What  is  said  of  the 
character  of  the  Chinese  ?     Of  their  public  works  ? 


GATHERING   TEA. 


c. 

BRITISH  INDIA  AND  INDO-OHINA. 

1.  British  India. — British  India  includes  nearly  all 
Hindostan  and  most  of  the  western  coasts  of  Indo-China. 
It  is  the  richest  and  most  important  dependency  ever 
possessed  by  any  nation. 

2.  Surface.  —  Hindostan  consists  of  the  Himalayan 
highlands  in  the  north,  the  plateau  of  the  Deccan  in  the 
south,  and  the  great  plain  between  them. 


contains  the  Valley  of 

dus,  the  lower  half  of  which 

stly  desert,  and  the  Valley 

Ganges,  which  is  one  of  the 

ile  and  populous  countries 

orld,  being  surpassed  only 

ons  of  China. 

3.  Inhabitants. — The  inhab- 
itants number  about  2-10  millions, 
being  about  four  fifths  as  many  as  in  all  Europe.  Six 
sevenths  are  Hindoos,  whose  religion  is  Brahminism;  most 
of  the  remainder  are  either  Buddhists  or  Mohammedans. 
There  are  also  Parsees,  or  Persian  fire-worshippers,  Jews, 
and  European  Christians,  and  many  whose  religious  be- 
lief is  the  grossest  heathenism.  The  greater  part  of 
the  Europeans  are  in  the  British  army  of  India. 

The  Hindoos  have  possessed  a  wonderfully  rich  poetical,  philo- 
sophical, and  religious  literature  from  times  long  before  the 
Christian  era.  British  India  is  rapidly  adopting  the  civilization 
of  Europe. 

4.  GoTernment. — The  country  is  under  the  control 
of  a  Governor-General  and  a  Supreme  Council  appointed 
by  the  British  Government.  The  Queen  of  England  is 
"  Empress  of  India."  The  capital  is  Calcutta.  The  rich 
and  populous  island  of  Ceylon  is  a  separate  colony. 

5.  Productions. — The  principal  vegetable  productions 
are  rice  and  other  grains,  cotton,  sugar,  opium,  indigo, 
jute,  and  spices.  Rice  is  the  principal  article  of  food, 
and  cotton  the  chief  material  for  clothing. 

6.  Commerce.  —  The  maritime  commerce  is  chiefly 
with  Great  Britain  and  China,  and  is  controlled  by  native 
and  British  merchants.  The  routes  of  an  extensive  car- 
avan trade  radiate  from  Hindostan  to  all  the  countries 
of  Central  and  Western  Asia.  Among  the  most  impor- 
tant articles  of  export  are  cotton,  opium,  sugar,  jute,  indigo, 


108 


BRITISH    INDIA,  INDOCHINA,  PERSIA,  AFGHANISTAN,  BELOOCHISTAN,  AND  ARABIA. 


fine  fabrics  of  silk  and  cotton,  and  costly  Cashmere  shawls. 
Ceylon  is  noted  for  its  export  of  coffee  and  cinnamon. 

7.  Railways,  etc. — The  principal  cities  are  connected 
by  railways,  by  means  of  which  the  cotton  and  other 
produce  of  the  interior  are  brought  to  the  ports.  Nearly 
all  the  railways  and  telegraph  lines  of  Asia  are  in  British 
India.     Steamboats  ply  on  the  principal  rivers. 

8.  Calcutta,  the  capital  of  British  India,  is  the  chief 
commercial  centre  of  Hindostan ;  Bombay  is  the  largest 
city  and  the  chief  cotton  port;  and  Madras  is  the  centre 
of  an  extensive  trade.  Benares,  the  chief  seat  of  Hindoo 
learning  and  religion,  is  the  most  sacred  city  of  Hindo- 
stan. Among  other  important  cities  are  Lucknow,  Patna, 
Hyderabad,  Delhi,  Surat,  and  Cashmere. 

9.  Indo-China. — Indo-China  includes  Burmah,  Siam, 
Anam,  and  many  smaller  independent  states.  All  have 
despotic  governments.  The  southeastern  coast  is  called 
Cochin  China.  The  interior  of  these  countries  is  but 
little  known  to  Europeans. 

10.  Inhabitants. — The  inhabitants  resemble  the  Chi- 
nese in  race,  religion,  and  civilization. 

11.  Commerce.  —  The  foreign  commerce  is  chiefly 
with  China  and  by  inland  routes.  The  productions  and 
exports  are  similar  to  those  of  Hindostan. 

12.  Bankok,  a  large  part  of  which  consists  of  houses 
built  on  floating  rafts  of  bamboo,  is  the  capital  of  Siam 
and  the  largest  city  in  the  peninsula;  Mandalay  is  the 
capital  of  Burmah,  and  Hue  the  capital  of  Anam. 

13.  The  British  possess  parts  of  the  west  coast  of  the 
Malay  peninsula,  and  the  island  and  fortified  city  of  Singa- 
pore, one  of  the  most  important  ports  of  the  East.  It 
controls  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  the  chief  gateway  of  Asiatic 
maritime  commerce,  and  is  the  great  depot  for  tin,  which 
is  obtained  from  neighboring  mountains  and  islands.  The 
French  possess  an  important  province  in  Indo-China ;  Sai- 
gon, a  fortified  port  on  the  southern  coast,  is  its  capital. 

Questions  (I.)— 1-  What  does  British  India  include  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?— 3.  De- 
scribe the  surface  of  Hindostan. — 3.  How  many  inhabitants  in  British  India?  What 
portion  are  Hindoos?  What  is  their  religion?  What  other  religions  are  found  in 
India?  With  what  are  most  of  the  European  residents  connected? — i.  By  whom  is 
the  country  governed?  What  city  is  the  capital?  What  island  is  a  province  of  British 
India? — 5.  What  are  the  principal  vegetable  productions?  The  chief  article  of  food? 
Of  clothing? — 6.  With  what  countries  is  the  maritime  commerce?  What  is  said  of 
the  caravan  trade?  What  are  the  most  important  exports? — 7.  What  is  said  of  the 
means  of  communication  ? — 8.  For  what  is  Calcutta  noted  ?  Bombay  ?  Madras  ? 
Benares?  Name  other  important  cities. — 9.  What  countries  are  included  in  Indo- 
China?  What  is  the  character  of  their  governments?  What  name  is  given  to  the 
.southeast  coast?  What  is  known  of  the  interior? — 10.  What  is  said  of  the  inhabit- 
ants?— 11.  Of  the  commerce?  Of  the  productions  and  exports? — 13.  For  *hat  is 
Bankok  noted  ?  Mandalay  ?  Hue  ? — 13.  What  and  where  are  the  British  possessions  ? 
Their  port?  Why  important?  Of  what  is  it  a  depot  ?  What  other  European  nation 
has  possessions  in  Indo-China?     What  and  where  is  the  capital? 

(II.) — 1.  What  two  valleys  does  it  contain?  What  is  the  character  of  each?— 
8.  What  is  said  of  Hindoo  literature?    Of  the  civilization  of  British  India? 


CI. 

PERSIA,  AFGHANISTAN,  BELOOCHISTAN,  AEABIA, 
AND  TUEKEY. 

1.  Persia,  Afg^hanistan,  and  Beloochistan.  —  Per- 
sia, Afghanistan,  and  Beloochistan  occupy  the  desert 
plateau  of  Iran,  between  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  the 
Indus.  Persia  is  the  largest  and  most  important.  They 
are  traversed  by  many  high  mountain  ranges. 

2.  The  high  plateaus  of  the  central  region  contain 
broad  steppes  and  deserts,  with  many  rich  oases  which 
determine  the  caravan  routes. 

3.  Beloochistan  is  mostly  a  barren  wilderness.  Afghan- 
istan is  of  commercial  and  military  importance  because  it 
contains  the  chief  routes  from  India  to  Western  Asia. 

4.  Governments.  —  The  governments  are  extremely 
oppressive.  The  supreme  ruler  of  Persia  is  called  the 
Shah.  Afghanistan  is  noted  for  its  frequent  and  cruel 
civil  wars ;  the  monarch  is  called  the  Khan.  Beloochistan 
consists  of  a  number  of  small  states,  under  the  headship 
of  the  Khan  of  Kelat. 

5.  Inhabitants. — The  inhabitants  are  of  various  Mo- 
hammedan races,  and  live  mostly  in  towns  and  villages. 
The  deserts  and  oases  have  a  large  nomadic  population, 
mostly  robber  hordes  of  Arabs,  Turks,  and  Afghans. 
The  Persians,  on  account  of  their  polite  manners  and 
comparatively  high  civilization,  are  sometimes  called  the 
French  of  Asia. 

6.  Exports. —  Persia  exports  silks,  woollens,  shawls, 
carpets,  and  cotton,  silk,  and  wool. 

7.  The  chief  cities  of  Persia  are  Teheran,  the  capital; 
Ispahan,  once  one  of  the  most  splendid  cities  of  the  East, 
but  now  fallen  into  decay ;  Tabriz,  noted  for  its  great 
trade  with  Russia ;  Bushire,  the  principal  port  on  the 
Persian  Gulf ;  and  Meshed,  the  Holy  City  of  Persia. 

Kelat,  the  capital  and  chief  town  of  Beloochistan,  and 
Cabul,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Afghanistan,  Herat, 
and  Kandahar  are  important  as  military  stations  and  as 
depots  of  the  great  caravan  routes. 

8.  Arabia. — Arabia  is  about  one  third  as  large  as  the 
United  States.  It  consists  of  three  regions:  a  great 
plateau,  having  many  large  and  fertile  valleys,  occupies 
the  interior ;  surrounding  this  is  a  broad  belt  of  deserts, 
covering  more  than  one  third  of  the  peninsula;  along  the 
coasts  is  a  low  and  narrow  sandy  plain  containing  a  few 
fertile  districts. 

9.  OoTernment. — The  interior  contains  several  inde- 
pendent states  governed  by  despots  called  sultans. 


POLITICAL    ASIA:   TURKEY. 


109 


About  five  sixths  of  the  population  live  in  towns  nnd  villages  ; 
the  remainder  are  tribes  of  plundering  nomads,  called  Bedouins. 
The  heads  of  the  tribes  are  called  sheiks.  They  are  nearly  all 
subject  to  the  sultans. 

The  principal  state  is  the  Nedjed,  which  occupies  the 
greater  part  of  the  interior  plateau.  Riad  is  the  capital 
and  the  residence  of  the  Sultan.  Muscat,  the  capital  of 
Oman,  is  the  largest  city  of  eastern  Arabia. 

10.  Yemen  and  Hedjaz,  on  the  western  coast,  are  prov- 
inces of  the  Turkish  Empire.  Yemen  is  very  fertile. 
Hedjaz  contains  the  holy  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina. 

Mecca  is  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  and  contains  the  Kaaba,  the 
most  sacred  of  mosques.  It  is  annually  crowded  with  caravans 
of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  Mohammedan  world.  An  im- 
mense amount  of  trade  is  at  the  same  time  carried  on.  The 
camel,  "the  ship  of  the  desert,"  is  the  principal  beast  of  burden. 
The  horses  of  Arabia  are  famous  for  speed  and  beauty. 

11.  Besides  the  cities  al- 
ready mentioned  are  Sana; 
Jiddah,  the  port  of  Mecca; 
Mocha,  noted  for  its  coffee; 
and  Aden,  belonging  to  Great 
Britain. 

The  most  valuable  pearl 
fishery  in  the  world  is  at 
Bahrein  Island,  near  the 
Strait  of  Ormus. 

12.  Asiatic  Turkey. — 
Asiatic  Turkey  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire. 

13.  Government. — It  is 
divided  into  provinces,  which 

'  are  governed  by  pachas  ap- 
pointed by  the  Sultan. 

Turkey  was  for  centuries  one 
of  the  richest  regions  of  the 
world.  The  arbitrary  and 
oppressive  nature  of  the  gov- 
ernment has  long  since  reduced  it  to  utter  poverty  and  degra- 
dation. Provinces  once  flourishing  and  densely  populated  are 
now  dry  and  solitary  wastes. 

14.  Commerce. — Maritime  commerce  is  in  a  low  con- 
dition. The  caravan  trade  connects  the  chief  cities  with 
Arabia  and  Persia.  There  are  few  roads.  The  Lebanon 
Mountains  in  the  southwestern  part  produce  large  quan- 
tities of  raw  silk. 

15.  The  principal  cities  are  Smyrna,  the  chief  com- 
mercial city  of  Western  Asia,  noted  for  its  exportation 
of  figs  and  other  dried  fruits ;  Bagdad,  the  centre  of 
the   caravan  trade   with  Arabia   and   Persia;    Bassorah, 


the  chief  port,  near  the  Persian  Gulf ;  Damascus,  a  depot 
of  the  caravan  trade  with  Persia,  and  said  to  be  the  old- 
est city  in  the  world;  Beirut,  the  sea-port  of  Damascus; 
and  Jerusalem,  the  sacred  city  of  Christians,  Jews,  and 
Mohammedans.  Aleppo,  Brusa,  and  Trebizond  also  are 
important  cities. 

Japan,  China,  and  India  have  possessed  extensive  commerce, 
books,  and  definite  systems  of  religion  and  government  from 
the  earliest  ages.  For  many  centuries  the  social  condition  of 
these  countries  remained  unchanged.  Important  and  rapid 
changes  are  now  taking  place  in  consequence  of  the  adoption 
and  introduction  of  the  railway,  the  telegraph,  and  other  prac- 
tical applications  of  the  sciences  and  arts  of  Europe. 

Questions  (I.)— 1.  Where  are  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Beloochistan  ?  Which  is 
the  most  important?  By  what  are  they  traversed  ?— 2.  What  is  the  character  of  the 
central  region  ?— 3.  Of  Beloochistan  ?  Why  is  Afghanistan  important  ? — 4.  What  kind 
of  government  have  these  countries  ?  What  is  the  title  of  the  Persian  monarch  ?  For 
what  is  Afghanistan  noted  ?    What  is  the  monarch  called  ?    Of  what  does  Beloochistan 


AKS  OF    LEBANON. 


consist  ?  Under  what  leadership  ? — 5.  What  is  said  of  the  inhabitants  ?  Of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  deserts  and  oases?  Of  the  Persians? — G.  What  are  the  exports  of  Persia? 
— 7.  For  what  is  Teheran  noted  ?  Ispahan  ?  Tabriz  ?  Bushire  ?  Meshed  ?  Kelat  ? 
What  other  caravan  depots? — 8.  How  large  is  Arabia?  Of  what  does  it  consist? 
What  is  the  interior?  What  surrounds  it?  What  surrounds  the  whole? — 9.  What 
does  the  interior  contain  ?  By  whom  governed  ?  Which  is  the  principal  state  ? 
Where  is  it?  What  city  is  the  capital?  What  is  said  of  Muscat? — 10.  Of  Yemen 
and  Hedjaz? — II.  Name  some  other  cities.  For  what  is  Bahrein  Island  noted? — 
12.  What  is  said  of  Asiatic  Turkey? — 13.  How  is  it  divided?  By  whom  are  the 
provinces  governed  ? — 14.  What  is  said  of  the  maritime  commerce?  Of  the  caravan 
trade?  Of  the  roads?  Where  is  silk  produced  ? — IT).  What  is  said  of  Smyrna?  Of 
Bagdad?  Of  Bassorah  ?  Of  Damascus?  Of  Beirut?  Of  Jerusalem?  What  other 
important  cities. 

(jl.) 9.  What  part  of  the  population  is  not  nomadic?    Who  are  the  Bedouins? 

To  whom  are  the  Bedouins  subject  ?— 10.  For  what  is  Mecca  noted  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  pilgrims  ?  Of  trade  ?  Of  the  camel  ?  Of  Arabian  horses  ?— 13.  What  was  once 
the  condition  of  Turkey?  What  is  its  present  condition  ?— It's.  What  is  said  of  the 
social  condition  of  Japan,  China,  and  India  ?     What  changes  are  now  going  on  } 


no 


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O  C  E  A  N  I  C  A. 


CIV. 

DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Oceanica. — Oceanica  includes  all  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  It  consists 
of  the  great  archipelagoes  of  Malaysia  and  Melanesia,  the 
continent  of  Australia,  together  with  the  islands  of  Tas- 
mania and  New  Zealand,  and  Polynesia. 

2.  malaysia.  —  The  population  of  Malaysia  is  about 
27,000,000,  or  nearly  five  times  as  much  as  that  of  all 
the  rest  of  Oceanica.  The  people  are  mostly  Moham- 
medan Malays,  and  are  brave,  intelligent,  and  in  part  civ- 
ilized.    The  climate  is  similar  to  that  of  the  West  Indies. 

3.  The  Philippine  Islands,  the  most  northern  group  of 
Malaysia,  belong  to  Spain.  The  capital,  Manila,  is  a 
great  emporium ;  its  exports  include  sugar,  tobacco,  ci- 
gars, indigo,  Manila-hemp,  cordage,  and  hats. 

Java,  Celebes,  the  Moluccas,  many  smaller  islands,  and 
parts  of  Sumatra  and  of  Borneo  belong  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  are  called  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  They  are 
rich  in  spices  and  tin,  and,  next  to  British  India,  are  the 
most  magnificent  of  colonial  possessions.  Java,  the  most 
important  of  these  islands,  contains  about  sixteen  millions 
of  inhabitants.  Batavia,  the  capital  and  the  chief  com- 
mercial depot,  exports  the  tin  of  Borneo  and  Banca,  the 


pepper  of  Sumatra,  the  cloves,  nutmegs,  and  other  spices 
of  the  Moluccas  and  Celebes,  and  other  tropical  products, 

4.  melanesia. — Melanesia,  or  "  Land  of  the  Blacks," 
is  a  long  group  of  islands  extending  from  New  Guinea 
to  New  Caledonia.  It  is  inhabited  by  a  cannibal,  negro- 
like race  called  Papuans. 

5.  Australia.  —  The  continent  of  Australia  and  the 
islands  of  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand  are  British  posses- 
sions. The  area  of  Australia  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
the  United  States,  excluding  Alaska.  Its  colonial  divi- 
sions are  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  West 
Australia,  and  South  Australia,  with  its  dependency. 
Northern  Territory.  Victoria,  the  most  important,  equals 
in  area  all  the  New  England  States,  together  with  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland. 

The  greater  part  of  the  interior  of  Australia  is  yet  unexplored.  It 
probably  consists  mainly  of  low  desert  plains.  The  continent  is 
nearly  encircled  by  a  rim  of  low  mountains,  the  highest  being  on 
the  eastern  side.  Between  these  and  the  almost  unbroken  coasts 
is  a  narrow  belt  of  lowlands.    There  are  but  few  rivers. 

6.  Population. — The  European  population  is  about 
one  and  three  quarter  millions,  the  greater  part  being  in 
Victoria  and  New  South  Wales.  The  original  savage 
inhabitants  are  nearly  exterminated. 

7.  Ciovernnaient.  —  The  colonies  are  politically  inde- 


OCEANICA:    AUSTRALIA    AND    POLYNESIA. 


113 


pendent  of  one  another,  and  are  governed  by  representa- 
tives chosen  by  universal  suffrage,  and  by  executive  offi- 
cers appointed  by  the  Crown. 

8.  Climate.  —  The  northern  part  of  Australia  has  a 
tropical  climate ;  the  southern  part  is  subject  to  sudden 
and  great  changes  of  temperature,  and  to  an  irregular 
succession  of  floods  and  droughts. 

9.  Vegetation.  —  In  the  wooded  regions  the  trees, 
which  are  chiefly  evergreens,  stand  wide  apart,  have  few 
leaves,  and  cast  little  shade.  Some  exceed  in  height  the 
arreat  trees  of  California. 

10.  Animals.  —  Many  of  the  native  quadrupeds  are 
pouched  animals,  some  being  as  tall  as  a  man,  others  no 
larger  than  a  rat.  Among  the  most  singular  are  the 
kangaroo,  the  wombat,  and  the  duck-bill;  the  last  has 
webbed  feet  and  a  broad  bill  like  a  duck.  Among  the 
birds  are  the  apteryx,  which  has  no  wings,  and  the  lyre- 
bird, the  tail-feathers  of  which  resemble  a  harp. 

11.  Productions. — Australia  produces  wheat.  Indigo, 
cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  tin,  and  copper.  The  scattered  but 
rich  grasses  support  many  millions  of  sheep  and  cattle. 
It  is  the  chief  wool-growing  country  in  the  world,  and  is 
second  only  to  the  United  States  in  the  production  of  gold. 

12.  Commerce. — Nearly  all  the  maritime  comnjerce 
is  with  Great  Britain,  and  is  carried  on  by  steamers. 
Railways  and  telegraph  lines  connect  the  two  largest 
cities,  Melbourne,  the  capital  of  Victoria,  and  Sydney,  the 
capital  of  New  South  Wales,  with  other  towns.  Other 
important  towns  are  Ballarat,  Geelong,  Paramatta,  Ade- 
laide, Brisbane,  and  Perth.  The  chief  exports  are  wool, 
cotton,  wheat,  gold,  and  copper. 

The  Australian  Colonies  and  New  Zealand,  though  distant  nearly 
half  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe  from  Great  Britain,  are  in 
telegraphic  communication  with  that  country.  A  land  line  from 
the  principal  cities  crosses  the  middle  of  the  continent  to  the 
northwestern  coast,  and  is  continued  by  an  ocean  cable  to  British 
India.  Other  lines  and  cables  connect  this  latter  country  with 
London.  A  line  of  ocean  steamers,  plying  between  Australia, 
the  Feejee  and  Sandwich  Islands,  and  San  Francisco,  connects 
the  commercial  system  of  the  United  States  with  that  of  Aus- 
tralia. 

13.  Tasmania  and  IVew  Zealand  are  very  moun- 
tainous. The  productions  of  Tasmania  are  similar  to 
those  of  Australia.     The  capital  is  Hobart  Town. 

New  Zealand  is  a  little  larger  than  Great  Britain. 
Gold  and  New  Zealand  flax  are  the  chief  exports.  Wel- 
lington is  the  capital. 

14.  Polynesia. — Polynesia  consists  of  many  thousands 
of  small  oceanic  islands  situated  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  and 
within  the  Torrid  Zone. 

35 


These  islands  are  mostly  in  parallel  chains,  and  appear  to  be  the 
tops  of  mountain  ranges  whose  bases  are  deep  in  the  ocean. 
If  the  mountain  is  entirely  below  the  sea,  the  island  usually 
consists  of  an  irregular  oval  ring  or  reef  of  coral,  enclosing  a 
lagoon,  having  one  or  more  openings  to  the  sea,  and  crowned 
with  cocoanut- palms  and  bread-fruit  and  other  trees.  Such 
an  island  is  called  an  atoll ;  many  hundreds  of  atolls  some- 
times constitute  a  single  group. 


CORAL  ATOLL. 


15.  The  Polynesians  are  mostly  Malays  and  Pagan  sav- 
ages. The  Sandwich  Islands,  Tahiti,  the  Feejee  Islands, 
and  the  Samoan  Islands  have  become  Christian  states. 

IG.  The  Sandwich  Islands,  the  most  important  group, 
produce  sugar  and  cotton  of  an  excellent  quality.  They 
contain  many  volcanoes;  one  of  these,  Mauna  Loa,  has 
the  largest  crater  in  the  world;  its  black  lava  wall  en- 
closes a  lake  of  fire.  The  government  is  a  limited  mon- 
archy.    The  capital,  Honolulu,  is  an  important  port. 

Note. — The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  the  countries  on  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  with  the  islands  scattered  over  its  surface  is  rapidly  grow- 
ing in  importance.  From  some  of  these  islands  the  exports  are  already  large 
in  quantity  and  of  great  value.  No  other  equal  area  of  land  surface  on  the 
globe  is  capable  of  yielding  a  larger  amount  of  sugar,  cotton,  and  other  trop- 
ical products,  and  no  people  are  so  well  situated  to  engage  in  this  commerce 
as  those  occupying  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States. 

Questions  (I.)— 1.  What  does  Oceanica  include?  What  great  archipelagoes? 
What  continent  ?  What  islands ?  What  other  division  ?— 2.  What  is  the  population 
of  Malaysia?  Of  what  race  and  religion?  Of  what  character  and  social  condition? 
W hat  is  said  of  the  climate  ?— 3.  What  islands  belong  to  Spain  ?  What  is  the  capital  ? 
What  is  said  of  it  ?  What  are  the  exports  ?  What  islands  belong  to  the  Netherlands  ? 
What  is  said  of  them  ?  Of  Java  ?  Of  Batavia  ?— 4.  What  is  Melanesia  ?  By  whom 
inhabited  ?—,").  To  what  country  do  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand  belong  ? 
What  is  the  area  of  Australia?  Name  its  colonial  divisions.  What  is  said  of  the 
area  of  Victoria  ?— 6.  What  is  said  of  the  European  population  of  Australia  ?  Of 
the  original  inhabitants?— 7.  How  are  the  colonies  governed?— 8.  What  is  the  climate 
of  Australia  ?— 9.  What  is  said  of  the  trees  of  Australia  ?— 10.  Of  the  native  animals  ? 
—11.  Of  the  productions?  Of  the  sheep  and  cattle  ?  Of  wool?  Of  gold  ?— 12.  How 
is  the  maritime  commerce  conducted?  With  what  country?  Wh.at  are  the  means 
of  internal  communication?  Name  the  important  towns.  What  are  the  chief 
exports?— 13.  What  is  the  character  of  the  surface  of  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand? 
What  are  the  productions  of  Tasmania  ?  Its  capital  ?  What  is  the  size  of  New  Zea- 
land? What  are  the  chief  exports?  What  city  is  the  capital ?— 14.  Of  what  does 
Polynesia  consist .?— 15.  Of  what  race  are  the  Polynesians?  In  what  social  state? 
What  three  important  exceptions  .'—10.  What  is  said  of  the  Sandwich  Islands?  Of 
their  volcanoes ?     Government?     The  capital? 

(1I.)_,5.  What  is  said  of  the  interior  of  Australia?  Of  the  mountains?  Of  the 
lowlands  ?  Of  the  coasts  ?  Of  the  rivers  ?— 12.  How  do  the  Australian  colonies  com- 
municate with  Great  Britain  ?  How  is  the  commercial  system  of  .Australia  connected 
with  that  of  the  United  States  ?— 14.  How  are  the  islands  arranged  ?  What  do  thejr 
seem  to  be  ?     W  hat  is  an  atoll  ? 


10      "Longituae  from         0       Greenwlrh 


8t.nelen»       -^ 
•     I.  t- 

0   c   :e  A    N 


Tropic  of  Ctpriconi 


PHYSICAL    MAP 

OF 

AFHICA 


-""'^H^rcif^^^" 


LoQKUude  Eaiit  VT  from.  ■Waahlngton  107 


Copl^right^Xi^^%,hy  Hitrftr  d:  BrUhcTt, 


.  ^  '  cv. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

In  what  zone  is  most  of  the  continent  of  Africa  ?  (See  Physical 
Map.)  What  waters  surround  it  ?  What  cape  at  the  northern  extrem- 
ity ?  At  the  eastern  ?  The  southern  ?  The  western  ?  Near  Cape 
Agulhas  ?  What  great  island  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  eastern  coast? 
What  channel  between  them  ?  What  mountains  parallel  to  the  south- 
ern coast  ?  To  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  ?  To  the  Mediterranean  Sea  ? 
What  desert  is  crossed  by  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  ?  By  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn  ?  What  river  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Africa  ?  Name 
its  three  principal  branches.  What  plateau  is  partly  drained  by  the 
Blue  Nile  ?  What  lakes  by  the  White  Nile  ?  Name  other  lakes  in 
the  Lake  Region.  What  river  flows  into  the  Mozambique  Channel  ? 
What  rivers  flow  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  What  islands  northwest 
of  Madagascar  ?  East  of  Madagascar  ?  {Mascareiie  Islands?)  Name 
the  two  largest.  What  solitary  islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  south  of 
the  Equator  ? 

What  general  name  is  given  to  the  countries  forming  the  northwest- 
ern border  of  Africa  ?  (See  Political  Map.)  Name  the  Barbary  States. 
What  country  occupies  the  northeastern  part  of  Africa  ?  What  prov- 
ince south  ?  What  country  southeast  of  Nubia  ?  Southwest  ?  West 
of  Madagascar  ?  North  of  Mozambique  ?  What  three  British  colonies 
in  Southern  Africa  ?  What  republic  northeast  of  Cape  Colony  ?  What 
general  name  is  given  to  the  western  coast  north  of  the  Equator? 
South  of  the  Equator  ?  What  countries  west  of  Upper  Guinea  ?  What 
name  is  given  to  the  coast  north  of  Sierra  Leone  ?  To  the  country 
south  of  Sahara  ? 

What  city  is  the  capital  of  Egypt  ?  At  the  western  mouth  of  the 
Nile  ?     At  the  eastern  mouth  ?     What  name  is  given  to  the  triangular 


piece  of  lowland  having  Cairo,  Alexandria,  and  Damietta  at  the  angles  ? 
{The  Delta,  from  its  resemblance  to  A,  the  Greek  letter  D.)  What  towns 
on  the  Suez  Canal  ?  What  three  cities  in  Abyssinia  ?  What  is  the 
capital  of  Zanguebar  ?  On  what  island  ?  What  is  the  capital  of  Mada- 
gascar ?  Name  the  capitals  of  the  three  British  colonies.  What  town 
in  Liberia  ?  In  Sierra  Leone  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  of  Morocco  ? 
What  city  northeast  of  Morocco  ?  What  three  cities  in  Algeria  ? 
What  is  the  capital  of  Tripoli  ?  Of  Tunis  ?  Of  Fezzan  ?  Barca  ? 
What  four  cities  in  Soudan  ? 


Zanguebar  ?  Mo- 
Orange  River  Re- 
Leone  ?      Liberia  ? 


CVI. 

EEVIEW  EXERCISES. 

Principal  Divisions  and  Subdivisions.  —  Where  is  it  ?  —  Barbary 
States  ?     Morocco  ?     Algeria  ?     Tunis  ?     Tripoli  ?     Barca  ?     Fezzan  ? 
Egypt  ?    Nubia  ?    Egyptian  Soudan  ?    Abyssinia  ? 
zambique  ?     Cape  Colony  ?     Natal  ?     Transvaal  ? 
public?     Upper  Guinea?      Senegambia?      Sierra 
Lower  Guinea  ?     Sahara  ?     Soudan  ? 

Rivers.  —  Where  does  it  rise  ?  In  what  direction  does  it  flow  ? 
Into  what  body  of  water  ? — Nile  ?  White  Nile  ?  Blue  Nile  ?  Atbara  ? 
Zambesi  ?     Orange  ?     Congo  ?     Niger  ? 

Cities.  —  In  what  part  of  the  country  1  How  situated  1  —  Cairo? 
Alexandria  ?  Damietta  ?  Port  Said  ?  Suez  ?  Gondar  ?  Antalo  ? 
Ankobar?    Zanzibar?   Tananarivo?    Bloemfontein?   Cape  Town? 

PlETERMARITZBURG  ?  PRETORIA  ?  MONROVIA  ?  FrEE  ToWN  ?  MO- 
ROCCO ?  Fez  ?  Algiers  ?  Constantine  ?  Oran  ?  Tunis  ?  Tripoli  ? 
MouRzouK?     Bengazi?     Timbuctoo?     Kano?     Sokoto?     Kuka? 


Atlas  Mts. 


SAHARA    OR    GREAT    DESERT 


Jft.MfuJtlll,400/ta 

A 


-Jfi 


Mt.Senia 


Soudan 


ABVSSINIAN  PLATEAU 
8000(oiK»0/ed 


Mt.KUima  Njaro 
20,065/1:. 
F  o  f'e  S^^P  C-A^A  u 

X.Tanganyika 


TUtoria  FaUa 


Enowy  Mts. 

7000  to  10,000./?. 

I  QtmU  Karno 
3000 /erf 

Cape 
Toten 


PROnLB  SECTION  OF  AFRICA. 


116 


PHYSICAL   AFRICA. 


PHYSICAL  AFRICA- 


CVII. 

DESOEIPTION. 

1.  Africa  contains  about  one  half  of  all  the 
land  in  the  Torrid  Zone.  It  has  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  plateau  surface,  more  unbroken 
coasts,  a  hotter  and  dryer  climate,  more  exten- 
sive deserts,  and  more  numerous  and  gigantic 
animals  than  any  other  of  the  six  continents. 
It  also  has  a  greater  number  of  barbarian  in- 
habitants than  all  the  rest  of  the  world  together. 

The  northern  tropic  passes  through  the  centre  of  the 
Great  Desert,  and  the  southern  tropic  through  the 
Kalahari  Desert.  Between  these  desert  belts  is  a 
broad  fertile  region,  most  of  it  being  deluged  with 
tropical  rains  during  several  months  of  the  year. 
This  belt  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  population 
and  of  the  vegetable  and  animal  life.  A  smaller 
fertile  belt  is  found  in  the  Atlas  region,  and  another 
in  Cape  Colony.  The  Great  Karroo,  in  the  south- 
ern belt,  is  a  low  plateau,  similar  in  character  to  the 
llanos  and  pampas  of  South  America.  The  conti- 
nent has  therefore  five  parallel  physical  belts,  three 
of  them  broad  tracts  of  fertile  land,  and  two  inter- 
mediate ones  of  desert. 

2.  Sarfkce. — Nearly  the  whole  surface  con- 
sists of  broad,  low  plateaus.  The  edges  of  the 
continent  are  partly  bordered  and  its  surface 
broken  by  short  mountain  ranges. 

The  highest  plateau  is  that  of  Abyssinia.  The  longest 
mountain  ranges  lie  along  the  eastern  coast.  These 
mountains  contain  the  snow-covered  peaks  Kilima 
Njaro  and  Kenia,  the  highest  in  Africa.  The  Atlas 
Mountains,  near  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Kong, 
near  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  are  the  only  other  important 
ranges. 

3.  A  narrow  strip  of  lowland  extends  be- 
tween the  mountain  borders  and  the  coasts  and 


PHYSICAL   AFRICA.— POLITICAL   AFRICA. 


117 


along  the  southern  base  of  the  Atlas.     The  only  other 
lowland  lies  near  the  centre  of  the  continent. 

4.  The  coast  is  remarkable  for  the  deadliness  of  the 
climate  and  for  the  small  number  of  islands,  peninsulas, 
gulfs,  and  navigable  rivers. 

The  entire  northern  coast  has  but  one  large  river,  the  Nile  ;  the 
eastern,  the  Zambesi  ;  the  western,  the  Niger,  the  Congo,  and 
the  Orange.  A  group  of  great  fresh-water  lakes  lies  upon  the 
east  side  of  the  continent,  some  of  which  are  connected  with  the 
Nile.     Lake  Tchad  lies  in  the  central  lowland. 

5.  Vegetation. — Except  in  the  middle  belt,  Africa 
is  comparatively  deficient  in  vegetation.  The  tropical 
forests,  though  covering  a  large  part  of  the  central  belt, 
are  less  dense  and  less  extensive  than  those  of  South 
America.  Among  the  most  useful  trees  are  the  oil- 
palm  of  Guinea,  the  date-palm   of  the   Barbary   States 


and  the  oases,  and  the  acacia,  which  supplies  the  gum- 
arabic  of  commerce. 

6.  Animals.  —  Among  the  animals  of  the  central 
belt  are  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  giraffe, 
chimpanzee,  and  gorilla ;  in  other  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent are  the  gnu  and  other  antelopes,  the  zebra,  and  the 
hyena.  The  ostrich  and  the  sacred  ibis  are  remarkable 
among  birds,  and  the  crocodile  and  the  horned  viper 
among  reptiles. 

Questions  (I.)— 1-  What  part  of  the  land  of  the  Torrid  Zone  is  in  Africa?  For 
what  is  Africa  remarlcable  among  the  continents? — 3.  What  is  the  character  of  the 
surface  of  Africa  ? — 3.  Where  are  the  lowlands? — i.  What  is  said  of  the  coast? — 
5.  Of  the  vegetation  ? — C.  Of  the  animals  ? 

(11.) — 1.  What  circle  passes  through  the  Great  Desert?  Through  the  Kalahari 
Desert  ?  What  lies  between  these  desert  belts  ?  What  does  this  fertile  belt  contain  ? 
What  two  other  fertile  belts  ?  What  is  the  relative  position  of  these  belts  ? — 2.  Which 
is  the  highest  plateau  ?  Where  are  the  longest  mountain  chains  ?  What  peaks  do  they 
contain  ?    What  other  important  ranges  .'—4.  What  is  said  of  the  rivers  ?    Of  the  lakes  ? 


— »-♦ — ♦  -  «  « 


THE  SUEZ  CANAU 


POLITICAL    AFRICA. 


CVIII. 

DESCEIPTION. 

1.  Population. — The  population  of  Africa  is  estimat- 
ed at  190  millions.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Sahara  and 
the  countries  north  and  east  of  it  are  mostly  of  the 
Caucasian  race,  though  much  darker  than  Europeans. 
The  negro  race  occupies  nearly  the  whole  continent 
south  of  the  Sahara,  and  forms  much  the  greater  part 
of  the  population. 


2.  Government.  —  All  the  native  governments  are 
despotisms,  and,  except  in  Egypt  and  the  Barbary  States, 
are  of  the  rudest  and  simplest  description. 

3.  Commerce.  —  The  limited  commerce  of  Africa  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  white  race.  Caravans  cross  the 
Great  Desert  from  the  Barbary  States  by  the  lines  of 
oases,  and  barter  European  and  Asiatic  manufactures 
for  the  gold,  gums,  ivory,  and  ostrich  feathers  of  Cen- 
tral Africa.  Similar  articles  from  the  interior  are  brought 
to  the  eastern  and  western  coasts.     The  Suez  Canal  and 


118 


CAUCASIAN    AFRICA. 


the  Alexandria  and  Suez  Railway  are  a  part  of  the  com- 
mercial systems  of  Europe  and  Asia.         ' 

Questions.  —  1.  What  is  the  population  of  Africa?  How  is  it  distributed?  — 
2.  What  is  said  of  the  native  governments  ? — 3.  What  race  controls  the  commerce  of 
Africa?  Describe  the  caravan  trade.  To  what  commercial  systems  do  the  Suez 
Canal  and  Railway  belong  ? 


CIX. 

CAUCASIAN  APKICA. 

1.  Egypt.  —  Egypt  and  its  dependencies,  Nubia  and 
Egyptian  Soudan,  occupy  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  from 
the  Equator  to  the  Mediterranean.  They  are  a  portion 
of  the  Turkish  Empire. 

2.  The  Nile. — The  heavy  tropical  rains  in  Abyssinia 
and  farther  south  cause  the  Lower  Nile  to  overflow  its 
banks  from  June  to  December. 

The  water  slowly  rises  for  three  months,  and  as  slowly  subsides, 
leaving  a  narrow  river  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  A  belt  of  low 
land  from  one  to  seven  miles  wide,  crossing  the  desert  region 
from  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  is  thus  alternately  a  continuous 
lake  and  a  broad  green  ribbon  of  grasses  and  cotton.  Not  a 
single  stream  joins  the  Nile  for  the  last  1200  miles  of  its  course, 
rain  being  almost  unknown  except  in  the  Delta. 

This  remarkable  valley  was  for  thousands  of  years  the  seat  of  a 
powerful  empire,  famous  for  its  wealth,  industry,  learning,  and 
skill  in  the  arts.  The  pyramids  and  temples  of  ancient  Egypt 
have  been  preserved  by  the  dry  climate,  and  are  the  most  stu- 
pendous and  magnificent  ruins  in  the  world. 

Egypt  is  by  far  the  most  important  country  in  Africa.  It  is  the 
only  one  that  resembles  Europe  in  its  manufactures,  agriculture, 
education,  railways,  and  telegraphs,  and  in  the  organization  of 
its  army  and  navy. 

3.  Cnoverninent.  —  The  government  is  a  despotism. 
The  chief  ruler  is  called  the  Khedive,  or  Viceroy. 

4.  Commerce.  —  Alexandria  and  other  cities  export 
large  quantities  of  grain  and  cotton.  The  Suez  Canal, 
recently  completed,  belongs  to  Egypt,  and  is  the  most 
important  maritime  trade  route  in  the  world.  It  con- 
nects the  commerce  of  Europe  with  that  of  southern 
and  eastern  Asia.  An  important  railway  connects  Alex- 
andria, Cairo,  and  Suez,  and  forms  a  portion  of  the  over- 
land route  to  India. 

5.  Population. — The  population  of  Egypt  and  its  de- 
pendencies is  about  seven  and  a  half  millions;  four  and  a 
half  millions  are  in  Egypt. 

Most  of  these  are  of  Arab  descent ;  the  remainder  are  Berbers  and 
other  African  tribes,  with  a  small  number  of  Copts,  who  are  de- 
scended from  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  Turks  are  the  ruling 
class,  and  Mohammedanism  is  the  prevailing  religion. 

6.  Cairo,  the  capital,  is  the  largest  city  in  Africa.  Alex- 
andria is  the  second  city  and  largest  sea-port.  Port  Said 
and  Suez  are  at  the  ends  of  the  great  canal. 


7.  Barbary  States. — The  Barbary  States  are  Mo- 
rocco, Algeria,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Barca. 

The  Barbary  States  are  so  called  from  the  Berbers,  a  pastoral  and 
agricultural  people  occupying  the  Alias  region.  The  other  prin- 
cipal races  are  the  Moors,  the  Arabs,  the  Turks  from  Asia,  and 
the  French  from  Europe  ;  all  but  the  last  are  Mohammedans. 

The  fertile  valleys  and  slopes  of  the  Atlas  are  called  the  "  Tell,"  or 
Grain  Country.  South  of  the  Tell  is  the  Sahara,  or  Country  of 
Oases ;  it  abounds  in  dates.  The  name  Sahara  is  also  given 
by  European  geographers  to  the  Great  Desert. 

8.  morocco. — Morocco  derives  its  name  from  the  Moors. 
It  is  a  semi-barbarous  country,  governed  by  a  sultan.  It 
exports  wool,  hides  and  skins,  wheat,  and  almonds.  Fez 
is  the  western  depot  of  the  caravan  trade  between  Eu- 
rope and  Central  Africa.     Morocco  is  the  capital. 

9.  Alg^eria. — Algeria  is  a  province  of  France.  It  ex- 
ports grain,  dates,  cotton,  indigo,  and  sugar.  The  chief 
cities  are  Algiers,  the  capital,  Constantine,  and  Oran. 

Europeans  form  but  a  small  part  of  the  population,  and  are  mostly 
in  the  sea-port  towns.  The  rest  of  the  inhabitants  are  about 
equally  divided  between  the  Berbers  of  the  Tell  and  the  Arabs 
of  the  Sahara,  which  here  contains  many  small  oases. 

10.  Tunis. — Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Barca  are  unimpor- 
tant states,  and  are  dependencies  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 
They  export  olives,  oil,  grain,  and  dates.  Fezzan  is  a 
dependency  of  Tripoli.  Tripoli,  the  capital  of  Tripoli, 
has  a  large  caravan  trade  with  Central  Africa. 

11.  8aliara. — The  Sahara  is  the  most  extensive  desert 
on  the  globe. 

It  is  the  western  portion  of  the  desert  belt  that  extends  from 
China  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  consists  of  rocky  plateaus  and 
mountain  ridges,  separated  by  broad  tracts  of  gravel  or  shifting 
sand.  Rain  falls  during  certain  parts  of  the  year  in  the  mount- 
ain regions,  and  oases  occupy  the  low  and  moist  spots.  In 
the  higher  plateaus  the  people  are  said  to  wear  furs  in  the 
winter. 


12.  A  line  of  oases  from 
Tripoli  through  Mourzouk  in 
Fezzan  to  Lake  Tchad  is  the 
principal  caravan  route. 


"^i'^^' :'■■-- -- 
''■<jj~  '-■ . 


THE   EDGE  OF  THE  DRSBRT. 


ABYSSINIA.— NEGRO    AFRICA:    SOUTH    CENTRAL   AFRICA    AND    AFRICAN    ISLANDS. 


119 


This  line  divides  the  Sahara  into  two  parts.  The  western,  called 
the  "sahel,"  or  "plain,"  is  sandy,  and  has  few  oases;  it  furnishes 
Soudan  with  salt.  The  eastern  is  tlie  Libyan  Desert,  and  has 
many  oases.     East  of  the  Nile  is  the  Nubian  Desert. 

13.  Population. — Sahara  is  sparsely  populated.  The 
inhabitants  are  similar  in  their  habits  to  the  Bedouin  Arabs. 

14.  Abyssinia. — Abyssinia  is  the  most  elevated  country 
in  Africa.  Many  of  its  mountain  peaks  are  covered  with 
snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  The  country 
is  in  a  barbarous  condition,  and  has  little  or  no  com- 
merce.   Gondar,  Antalo,  and  Ankobar  are  the  chief  cities. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  Where  are  Egypt  and  its  dependencies  situated?  Name  the 
dependencies.  Of  what  empire  is  Egypt  a  part? — 2.  How  do  the  tropical  rains  affect 
the  Lower  Nile  ? — 3.  What  is  the  government? — 4.  What  are  the  exports?  What  is 
said  of  the  Suez  Canal?  What  railway  in  Egypt? — 5.  What  is  the  population  of 
Egvpt  ? — 6,  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  For  what  is  Alexandria  noted  ?  Where  are 
Port  Said  and  Suez  ? — ".  Name  the  Barbary  States. — 8.  From  what  does  Morocco 
derive  its  name?  What  is  its  social  condition  ?  Its  government  ?  Its  exports?  Its 
chief  trade  centre  ?  Its  capital  ? — 9.  Of  what  country  is  Algeria  a  province  ?  What 
are  its  exports?  Its  capital  and  other  cities? — 10.  What  is  said  of  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and 
Harca?  What  are  their  exports  ?  What  is  said  of  Fezzan  ?  What  is  the  capital  of 
Tripoli  ?  For  what  is  it  noted  ? — 11.  How  does  the  Sahara  compare  with  other  deserts  ? 
— 12.  Where  is  the  great  line  of  oases .' — 13,  What  is  said  of  the  population  of  Sahara  ? 
— 14.  Which  is  the  most  elevated  country  in  Africa?  What  is  the  social  condition  of 
the  country  ?     Name  the  chief  cities. 

(II.) — 3.  Describe  the  effect  of  the  tropical  rains  upon  the  Lower  Nile.  For  %vhat 
was  ancient  Egypt  remarkable?  What  is  the  present  condition  of  the  country?  In 
what  respect  does  it  resemble  Europe  ? — 5.  To  what  races  do  the  people  belong  ?  Who 
are  the  ruling  class  ?  What  is  the  prevailing  religion  .> — 7.  Why  are  the  Barbary  States 
so  called  ?  What  are  the  other  principal  races  ?  Of  what  religion  are  they  ?  Where 
and  what  is  the  Tell?  The  Sahara? — 9.  What  part  of  the  population  of  Algeria  is 
European?  Who  are  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants? — 11.  Of  what  is  Sahara  a  part? 
Of  what  does  it  consist?  What  and  where  are  the  oases? — 12.  How  does  the  line  of 
oases  divide  the  Sahara?  What  is  said  of  the  western  part?  The  eastern  part? 
What  other  desert  east  of  the  Nile? 


ex. 

NEGEO  AFRICA. 


1.  Coast  Regions  and  Climate. — The  greater  part 
of  the  lowlands  along  the  western  and  eastern  coasts  has 
a  hot,  moist  climate.  North  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orange 
River  the  coast  for  seven  hundred  miles  is  entirely  desert. 
The  interior  is  little  known. 

2.  Colonies. — A  line  of  European  colonies  and  trading 
towns  extends  from  Cape  Verde  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  thence  to  Mozambique.  Cape  Colony,  Natal, 
and  Transvaal  are  the  most  important,  and  belong  to 
Great  Britain.  Northeast  of  Cape  Colony  is  Orange 
River,  which  is  an  independent  Dutch  republic. 

On  the  western  coasts  are  Senegambia,  in  part  claimed 
by  the  French ;  Sierra  Leone,  a  British  colony  of  negroes 
rescued  from  slave-ships ;  Liberia,  an  independent  repub- 
lic of  negroes  from  the  United  States.  The  rest  of  the 
Guinea  ports  belong  to  England,  Portugal,  and  Spain. 

On  the  eastern  coast  Mozambique  is  partly  in  possession 
37 


of  the  Portuguese.    The  coast  of  Zanguebar  is  held  by  the 
Arabs;  Zanzibar,  the  capital,  is  the  residence  of  the  Sultan. 

3.  Exports. — The  principal  exports  from  the  eastern 
and  western  coasts  are  the  palm-oil  of  Guinea,  gums, 
spices,  sugar,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  and  gold;  from  the 
southern  coasts  wool,  hides,  tallow,  ostrich  feathers,  and 
diamonds. 

4.  Soudan. — Soudan  is  a  broad  fertile  belt  crossing  the 
continent  south  of  the  Great  Desert.  The  principal  cities 
are  Kano,  Sokoto,  Kuka,  and  Timbuctoo.  They  have  a 
great  caravan  trade  to  the  Mediterranean  coasts.  The 
exports  are  gold,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  and  gum-arabic. 

In  its  heavy  tropical  rains,  extensive  forests,  fertile  soil,  and  great 
heat,  Soudan  somewhat  resembles  the  selvas  of  the  Amazon.  It 
contains  a  large  number  of  populous,  semi-barbarous  states. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Mohammedans,  the  rest  Pagans.  The 
religion  of  the  Pagan  negroes  combines  a  belief  in  evil  spirits, 
witchcraft,  and  magic  charms,  and  is  known  as  Fetichism. 

5.  South  Central  Africa. — The  central  plateau  south 
of  Soudan  is  but  little  known.  Ivory  is  the  principal  arti- 
cle of  cominerce. 

Large  fresh-water  lakes  lie  south  of  the  Equator  and  towards  the 
eastern  side  of  the  continent.  The  Victoria  Falls  in  the  Zam- 
besi River  are  exceeded  in  grandeur  only  by  those  of  Niagara. 
In  the  extreme  south  is  the  Kalahari  Desert. 

6.  African  Islands  — Madagascar  is  about  equal  in 
area  to  the  five  North  Central  States  of  the  United  States. 
The  government  is  a  despotic  monarchy.  The  capital 
and  largest  city  is  Tananarivo.  Tamatave,  the  chief  port, 
exports  cattle  and  rice. 

Mauritius,  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  exports  sugar, 
and  is  a  stopping -place  for  vessels  crossing  the  Indian 
Ocean,     Reunion,  or  Bourbon,  is  a  French  colony. 

The  Atlantic  Islands  are  of  small  size,  and  are  pre- 
cipitous, volcanic  rocks.  St.  Helena  and  Ascension  belong 
to  Great  Britain.  The  Cape  Verde  and  the  Madeira 
Islands,  belonging  to  Portugal,  and  the  Canaries,  belong- 
ing to  Spain,  export  wine,  f ugar,  and  coffee. 

Questions  (I.) — 1.  What  is  the  character  of  the  climate  of  the  eastern  and  western 
coasts  of  Africa?  What  long  desert  coast?  What  is  said  of  the  interior.' — 2.  Where 
are  the  European  colonies  ?  Which  are  the  most  important  ?  To  what  country  do 
they  belong?  What  and  where  is  Orange  River  republic?  What  other  colonies  are 
there?  What  republic?  To  what  nations  do  the  other  ports  belong?  Who  hold 
the  eastern  coast?  What  is  the  capital  of  Zanguebar .' — o.  What  are  the  exports?— 
4.  What  is  Soudan  ?  Mention  its  chief  cities.  With  what  coasts  do  they  trade,  and 
how?  What  are  the  exports.' — 5.  What  region  of  Africa  is  yet  but  litkle  known? 
What  is  the  principal  article  of  export .' — 0.  To  what  states  is  Madagascar  equal  in 
surface?  What  is  the  government?  Which  is  the  capital  city?  The  chief  port? 
Its  exports  ?  What  is  said  of  Mauritius  ?  Of  Reunion  ?  What  is  the  character 
of  the  Atlantic  Islands?  To  what  country  do  St.  Helena  and  Ascension  belong? 
What  other  islands?    To  what  countries  do  they  belong?    What  are  their  exports? 

(II.) — 4.  What  does  Soudan  resemble?  What  does  it  contain?  Of  what  religions 
are  the  inhabitants  of  Soudan?  Describe  the  religious  belief  of  the  Pagan  negroes. 
—5.  Where  are  the  fresh-water  lakes?  What  is  said  of  the  Victoria  Falls?  What 
desert  in  the  south  ? 


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QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

Name  the  chief  Atlantic  ports  of  North  America. 
Which  one  is  the  most  important  ?  What  ports  on  or 
near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  Name  the  chief  Pacific  ports 
of  North  America.  Which  is  the  most  important? 
Which  are  the  two  chief  river-ports  of  the  St.  Lawrence .' 
Of  the  Mississippi? 

Which  is  the  most  northwesterly  port  of  South 
America?  (79*)  What  port  near  the  eastern  extremity 
of  South  America?  What  ports  between  Aspinwall  and 
Pernambuco  ?  Between  Pernambuco  and  Cape  Horn  ? 
Name  the  principal  Pacific  ports  of  South  America. 
Which  one  is  farthest  north?  Near  what  Caribbean 
port  is  it  ?    By  what  arc  they  connected  ?  (80) 

*  The  numbers  in  this  lesson  refer  to  pages  in  the  book  where  the 
answers  may  be  found. 


Name  the  two  principal  ports  of  the  British  Islands. 
For  what  is  the  port  of  London  remarkable  ?  (!)1)  What 
ports  in  Ireland  ?  (SH)  In  Scotland  ?  (80)  Which  is  the 
chief  port  of  the  north  of  France  ?  (92)  What  ports  of 
Europe  are  on  or  near  the  North  Sea  ?  (87,  92)  On  or 
near  the  Baltic  ?  (87,  92).  In  Iceland  ?  (87)  Name  the 
chief  ports  of  Europe  between  the  Strait  of  Dover  and 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  (92)  Name  three  Spanish  ports 
on  the  Mediterranean.  (02)  Name  the  chief  French 
port.  (94)  The  chief  Italian  ports.  (92)  In  Sicily.  The 
chief  port  of  Austria.  (9())  Of  Greece.  (9C)  Of  Turkey. 
(92)     What  port  on  the  White  Sea?  (87) 

Name  the  chief  Mediterranean  ports  of  Africa.  (114) 
The  Atlantic  ports.  (114)  What  port  near  the  southern 
extremity  of  Africa  ?  What  ports  on  the  eastern  coast? 
(114)     At  the  ends  of  the  Suez  Canal?  (114) 

What  Asiatic  ports  are  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea? 


(102)  The  Red  Sea?  (102)  Persian  Gulf ?  (102)  Ai 
bian  Sea?  (102)  On  or  near  the  Bay  of  Bengal?  (Id 
The  China  Sea?  (102)  What  Pacific  ports  of  Asia  a 
l.orth  of  Canton?  (102)  Name  the  chief  ports  of  Ai 
tralia.  Tasmania.  (Ill)  New  Zealand.  The  Indi 
Archipelago.     The  Sandwich  Islands. 

Where  is  the  chief  manufacturing  district  of  E 
rope?  Of  North  America?  What  European  port  hai 
very  large  trade  with  the  United  States?  (91)  What  .n 
the  principal  exports  from  New  York  to  Liverpoc 
(64,  90)  How  do  these  articles  reach  New  Yoi 
(34,  42,  64,  6.">)  From  what  parts  of  the  United  St.ii 
does  most  of  the  wheat  come  ?  Of  the  maize  ?  Cotto 
Tobacco  ?  Provisions  ?  Petroleum  ?  Gold  ?  Silvc 
Why  does  not  New  York  export  dry-goods  and  iron 
Great  Britain  ?  (90)  What  other  port.s  of  the  Unit 
States  have  an  important  share  of  the  foreign  trade  ?  (i 


Which  are  the  chief  cotton  ports  ?  (New  Orleans,  Gal- 
veston, Mobile,  Savannah,  Charleston,  Norfolk,  and  New 
York.)  The  chief  grain  ports?  (New  York,  Boston, 
■  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.)  What  are  the  chief  ex- 
ports from  Liverpool  to  the  United  States  >  (34)  Name 
the  articles  of  commerce  between  French  ports  and 
those  of  the  United  States.  The  German  ports.  Rus- 
sian ports.     Spanish.     Italian.     Turkish.     Greek. 

A  steamer  from  London  to  Smyrna,  with  an  assorted 
cargo,  touches  at  Cadiz,  Gibraltar,  and  the  leading  ports 
of  the  Mediterranean  :  what  classes  of  articles  will  prob- 
ably constitute  the  chief  part  of  her  cargo  ?  The  same 
vessel  sails  from  Smyrna  to  New  York,  stopping  at  the 
Mediterranean  ports  :  what  articles  will  she  probably 
bring?  She  then  sails  from  New  York  for  London: 
what  will  her  cargo  now  probablv  be? 

A  steamer  from  New  York  to  Rio  Janeiro  touches  at 


St.  Thomas,  W.  L,  and  other  intermediate  ports  :  what  ar- 
ticles is  she  likely  to  carry  out  .'*  To  bring  back?  Why 
not  cotton  ?  What  cargoes  from  New  York  to  Monte- 
video and  Buenos  Ayres  ?     What  return  cargoes  ? 

How  far  by  steamer  from  New  York  to  Aspinwall  ? 
To  New  Orleans  ?  At  what  port  do  New  York  and  New 
Orleans  steamers  touch  ?  (Havana.)  Name  the  chief 
exports  of  western  South  America. 

What  are  the  chief  exports  of  San  Francisco  ?  Where 
is  most  of  the  gold  and  silver  sent  ?  (To  New  York  and 
China.)  Of  the  wheat  and  flour  ?  (To  England.)  With 
what  Chinese  ports  has  San  Francisco  an  important 
trade?  What  Japanese  ports?  With  what  ports  of 
Australia?     New  Zealand?     Sandwich  Islands  ?     South 

•  Remember  that  the  manufactures  of  nearly  all  countries  except 
those  of  Western  Europe,  Eastern  North  America,  and  Eastern  Asia 
are  very  limited. 


America  ?  Mexico  ?  Why  does  the  steamer-route  from 
Yokohama  to  San  Francisco  differ  from  the  route  by 
sail  ?  Whence  does  San  Francisco  import  most  of  its 
coal  ?  (Australia  and  British  Columbia.)  Name  six  of 
the  chief  cities  on  the  great  railroad  routes  between 
San  Francisco  and  New  York.    (6(),  G7) 

What  are  the  chief  exports  of  Tasmania,  Nev7 
Zealand,  and  Australia  ?  To  what  country  ?  What 
articles  are  probably  imported  in  return  ? 

Where  are  the  chief  whale  fisheries?  Seal  fisheries? 
Cod  fisheries  ?  Other  fisheries  ?  Whence  are  the  chief 
supplies  of  ivory  ?  Ostrich  feathers  ?  Gums  ?  Drugs  ? 
Opium?  Teas?  Tobacco?  Silk?  Cotton?  Coffee? 
Sugar  ?  Jute  ?  Pepper  ?  Flax-seed  ?  Wheat  ?  Maize  ? 
Hides?  Furs?  Silver?  Gold?  Copper?  Iron?  In 
what  parts  of  the  world  is  traffic  still  carried  on  by 
caravans  ? 


r  tt  Brothtrt.^ 


122 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY— GENERAL   REVIEW. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY-GENERAL    REVIEW. 


How  is  the  earth  known  to  be  a  globe  ?  What  has  caused  it  to  be  flattened  at  the 
poles?  What  is  the  length  of  the  polar  diameter?  Of  the  equatorial  diameter  ?  Of 
the  circumference  ?  Describe  the  general  physical  condition  of  the  earth.  {Ans.  The 
earth  is  by  many  supposed  to  be  a  slowly  cooling  and  shrinking  ball  of  matter,  which 
was  once  entirely  in  a  molten  state.  Its  cooled  and  hardened  crust  is  comparatively 
thin,  and  is  the  surface  upon  which  we  live.  Mountain  ranges  are  the  folds,  ridges,  and 
lines  of  fracture  of  the  crust.  The  broad  hollows  of  the  surface  are  partly  filled  by  the 
ocean.  Volcanoes  are  openings  to  the  still  melted  interior  of  the  earth,  and  are  mostly 
found  upon  the  lines  of  fracture.)  What  evidences  have  we  of  the  heat  of  the  interior 
of  the  earth  ?  {Arts.  Volcanoes,  hot-springs,  earthquakes,  and  the  gradual  increase  of 
heat  with  the  depth  in  deep  borings  and  mines.) 

Name  the  two  great  land  masses.  What  is  the  position  of  the  line  of  direction  of 
each?  How  many  continents  in  each?  What  separate  continent  is  there?  Name 
the  six  continents  in  the  order  of  their  size.  How  are  most  of  the  islands  arranged  ? 
How  many  classes  of  islands  are  there?  What  are  continental  islands?  Where  are 
the  principal  chains?  What  are  oceanic  islands?  Where  are  the  principal  chains? 
What  are  volcanic  islands?  Coral  islands?  Where  chiefly  found?  Name  two  of 
each  class  of  islands. 

What  is  a  mountain  system  ?  Where  is  the  longest  system  in  the  world  ?•  What 
is  its  direction?  Where  is  it  highest?  Name  the  principal  mountain  chains  of  North 
America.  Of  South  America.  Where  is  the  chief  mountain  system  of  the  Old  World? 
Where  is  it  highest?  Name  the  principal  mountain  chains  of  Asia.  Of  Europe.  Of 
Africa.  Of  Australia.  Where  are  most  of  the  volcanoes  of  North  America  ?  In  what 
countries?  Where  are  the  volcanoes  of  South  America  ?  What  island  chains  of  Asia 
abound  in  volcanoes?  What  can  you  say  of  the  volcanoes  of  Malaysia?  (Ans.  They 
are  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  equal  area  in  the  world.)  What  volcanoes  com- 
plete the  "  fire  circle  "  of  the  Pacific  ?  (Ans.  Those  of  Melanesia  and  New  Zealand.) 
What  oceanic  islands  of  the  Pacific  contain  volcanoes  ?  Which  has  the  greatest  crater 
in  the  world  ?     What  volcanoes  are  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  ?     In  Iceland  ? 

What  is  a  plateau?  Which  continent  has  the  greatest  proportion  of  plateau  sur- 
face? Which  the  least?  Where  are  the  great  plateaus  found  in  each  continent? 
Describe  the  great  plateau  belt  of  North  America.  How  high  is  it?  What  great 
mountain  system  rests  upon  it  ?  Through  what  countries  does  it  extend  ?  Describe 
the  Eastern  Highland.  What  mountain  system  does  it  contain?  Name  some  of  the 
ranges.  Where  is  the  highest  plateau  belt  of  South  America?  What  countries  lie 
wholly  or  partly  in  it?  In  which  is  it  highest  and  broadest  ?  How  high  is  it?  What 
mountain  system  rests  upon  it  ?  In  what  country  is  the  broadest  plateau  of  South 
America?  Is  it  high  or  low?  What  mountains  does  it  contain?  Where  is  the  chief 
highland  belt  of  Europe?  What  countries  lie  wholly  or  partly  in  it?  Which  are  its 
chief  mountain  chains?  For  what  are  the  plateaus  of  Asia  remarkable?  In  what 
parts  of  the  continent  are  they  ?  Name  some  of  them.  Which  is  the  highest  ?  How 
high  is  it?  What  mountain  chains  rest  upon  these  plateaus?  Which  is  the  highest 
plateau  of  Africa?  What  mountains  rest  upon  it  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  plateaus 
of  Australia? 

What  is  a  lowland  plain?  Where  is  the  great  low  plain  of  North  America?  By 
what  is  it  divided  ?  Into  what  two  plains  ?  Which  way  does  each  plain  slope  ?  How 
can  you  tell  this  by  the  map?  What  plain  east  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains? 
Where  is  the  great  low  plain  of  South  America?  Name  its  three  principal  divisions. 
What  countries  lie  wholly  or  partly  in  each  ?  Describe  the  llanos.  The  selvas.  The 
pampas.  Where  is  the  great  plain  of  Europe  ?  What  mountain  walls  partly  enclose 
it?  What  countries  lie  wholly  or  partly  in  it?  What  other  plains  in  Europe?  In 
what  countries?  Where  is  the  great  lowland  plain  of  Asia?  With  what  other  plain 
connected?  What  countries  are  in  it?  What  great  lakes  in  its  western  part ?  What 
plains  in  other  parts  of  Asia?  For  what  are  the  plains  of  China  and  Hindostan  re- 
markable ?     In  what  part  of  Africa  are  the  plains  ? 

Name  the  five  chief  divisions  of  the  ocean.  Which  are  the  three  great  oceans  ? 
Which  is  the  largest  ?  For  what  else  remarkable  ?  The  Atlantic  ?  The  Indian  ?  The 
Arctic?  The  Antarctic?  Name  the  chief  islands,  border  seas,  and  gulfs  of  the  Pacific. 
Of  the  Atlantic.  Of  the  Indian.  From  what  level  are  all  heights  estimated  ?  What 
can  you  say  of  it  ?  (Ans.  After  allowing  for  the  temporary  eff'ects  of  tides,  winds,  etc., 
the  surface  of  the  sea  stands  at  the  same  level  in  all  parts  of  the  world.)  What  are 
ocean  currents  ?  What  can  you  say  of  their  extent  ?  Of  their  causes  ?  Name  some 
of  the  principal  currents.  Of  what  use  are  they?  Describe  the  equatorial  currents. 
The  Gulf  Stream.     The  Japan  Stream.     The  polar  currents. 

How  high  does  the  atmosphere  extend  ?  Where  is  it  most  dense?  Why?  At  what 
height  does  plant  life  cease?  Why?  What  can  you  say  of  the  composition  of  the 
atmosphere  and  of  the  use  of  each  part?  (Ans.  The  atmosphere  consists  chiefly  of  a 
mixture  of  three  gases.  Dry  air  contains  about  one  fifth  part  oxygen,  nearly  four  fifths 
nitrogen,  and  about  one  five-hundredth  part  carbonic  acid.  There  is  also  a  variable 
quantity  of  watery  vapor,  which  is  the  source  of  all  rains  and  dews.  The  oxygen  is  the 
vital  element  in  the  breath  of  animals,  but  would  destroy  life  if  it  were  not  so  greatly 

•  For  mounuins,  plateaus,  aud  plains,  consult  the  physical  maps  and  the  sections  of  the  continents. 


diluted  with  nitrogen.  Carbonic  acid  furnishes  all  plants  with  carbon,  of  which  they 
are  chiefly  composed.)  What  is  the  chief  source  of  the  watery  vapor?  What  are  the 
effects  of  the  heat  of  the  sun  upon  air  ?  In  what  zone  are  these  effects  the  most  power- 
ful ?  What  are  winds?  Describe  the  trade-winds.  The  counter-trades.  In  what  re- 
spects are  winds  similar  to  ocean  currents  ?     Of  what  uses  are  winds  ? 

What  is  climate  ?  Upon  what  does  it  chiefly  depend  ?  How  affected  by  latitude  ? 
By  elevation  ?  By  sea  winds  ?  By  land  winds  ?  By  ocean  currents  ?  By  distance  from 
the  sea  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  annual  rain-fall  of  a  country  ?  In  which  zone  is  it 
greatest  ?  Describe  the  tropical  rain-belt.  How  does  it  affect  climate  and  vegetation  ? 
How  do  high  mountains  affect  climate?  What  is  the  chief  cause  of  deserts?  Where 
is  the  great  desert  belt  ?  What  states  or  countries  in  each  continent  have  a  very  dry 
climate  ? 

What  is  a  river  systein?  A  basin  or  valley?  What  great  rivers  flow  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean  ?  What  plains  do  they  drain  ?  What  great  rivers  flow  into  the  Atlantic 
and  its  seas,  etc.  ?  What  plains  or  what  plateaus  do  they  drain  ?  Which  is  the  most 
extensive  river  system  of  North  America?  Name  some  of  the  principal  branches. 
Of  South  America?  The  chief  branches ?  What  great  rivers  flow  into  the  Indian 
Ocean?  What  plains  or  what  plateaus  do  they  drain?  Into  the  Pacific?  What 
plains  or  plateaus  do  they  drain  ?  What  rivers  of  Europe  and  Asia  do  not  flow  into 
the  ocean  ?  Into  what  do  they  flow?  Why  are  such  lakes  salt?  Are  there  any  salt 
lakes  in  the  United  States?  Where?  In  any  other  part  of  the  world?  Where? 
Where  is  the  Dead  Sea  ?  For  what  remarkable  ?  In  which  continents  are  the  two 
chief  systems  of  fresh-water  lakes?  With  what  rivers  and  ocean  are  they  connected? 
What  is  meant  by  "  perpetual  snow  ?"  By  the  "  snow-line  ?"  How  does  its  height 
vary?  What  are  glaciers?  How  formed?  Where  found  in  Europe?  In  Asia?  In 
North  America?  What  is  Greenland  supposed  to  be?  (Ans.  An  archipelago  in 
which  both  land  and  sea  are  filled  with  glaciers.)  What  are  icebergs  ?  How  formed? 
(See  page  1.5.)  (Another  cause  is  that  the  lower  ends  of  arctic  and  antarctic  glaciers 
are  sometimes  pushed  forward  along  the  sea-bottom  and  into  very  deep  water.  Being 
lighter  than  the  salt  water,  they  have  a  tendency  to  float,  and  thus  break  off'.) 

Upon  what  does  the  character  of  vegetable  life  chiefly  depend  ?  (Ans.  Upon  climate 
and  soil.)  Where  is  the  principal  forest  region  of  North  America?  What  parts  of  it 
abound  in  pines  and  firs?  Where  are  the  prairie  regions?  What  vegetation  is  found 
on  the  great  western  plains  ?  Near  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  ?  Where  is  the 
western  forest  region  ?  Which  are  its  principal  trees?  Where  are  the  largest  trees  in 
the  world  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  vegetation  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  low 
parts  of  Central  America?  Name  some  of  its  trees.  Where  are  the  grassy  regions 
of  South  America  ?  The  desert  regions  ?  The  great  forest  region  ?  Name  some  of 
its  most  useful  trees.  The  chief  forest  regions  of  Europe  ?  Of  Asia  ?  Name  some 
Asiatic  plants.     Where  is  the  principal  forest  belt  of  Africa? 

Name  the  chief  food  plants  of  the  temperate  regions  of  North  America.  Of  the 
warmer  regions  and  the  West  Indies.  Of  South  America.  Of  southern  Europe.  Of 
the  rest  of  Europe.  Of  southern  Asia.  Of  Africa.  Of  Australia.  Which  is  the 
principal  grain  of  the  world  ?  {Ans.  Rice  ;  it  supports  more  than  one  third  of  the 
human  race.) 

Name  some  quadrupeds  found  in  the  colder  parts  of  North  America.*  What 
other  quadrupeds  are  found  in  that  continent?  Name  its  largest  reptile.  The  most 
remarkable  birds.  The  most  remarkable  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  reptiles  of  South 
America.  Some  of  the  quadrupeds  of  northern  Europe.  ,  Of  other  parts  of  Europe. 
From  what  continent  were  most  of  our  domestic  animals  originally  derived  ?  Name 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  animals  of  northern  Asia.  Of  desert  Asia.  Of  southern 
Asia.  What  peculiarity  have  most  of  the  Australian  quadrupeds  ?  Name  some  of 
the  pouched  animals.  .Some  of  the  birds  of  Australia  and  their  peculiarities.  How  is 
Africa  remarkable  in  regard  to  its  animals  ?     Name  some  of  them. 

Name  the  five  races  of  mankind.  Which  two  are  the  most  numerous?  Which  is 
the  least?  What  part  of  mankind  is  comprised  in  each  of  the  five  races?  Where 
is  the  Caucasian  race  found?  The  Mongol?  The  Ethiopian?  The  Malay?  The 
American  ?  For  what  is  the  Caucasian  race  distinguished  ?  What  races  are  found  in 
North  America  ?  In  what  part  of  the  continent  are  the  Caucasians  chiefly  found  ?  Of 
what  race  are  the  Esquimaux  ?  {Ans.  Mongo].)  Where  are  they  ?  (^/m.  On  the  shores 
of  Alaska  and  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.)  The  Ethiopians?  The  Americans?  What  two 
races  occujjy  Europe  ?  Which  are  the  chief  European  branches  of  the  Caucasian 
race?  Where  are  the  Celts?  The  Teutons?  The  Sclaves?  To  which  branch  do 
the  Irish  belong  ?  The  Welsh  ?  The  Germans  ?  The  English  ?  The  Russians  ? 
What  peoples  of  Europe  are  Mongols?  (Ans.  Lapps,  Finns,  Turks,  and  M.ngyars.) 
What  three  races  occupy  Asia?  What  mountains  separate  the  Mongols  from  the 
Caucasians?  Of  what  race  are  the  Persians?  The  Chinese?  The  Arabs?  The 
Hindoos?  The  Japanese?  The  Tartars?  ■  In  what  part  of  the  continent  is  the 
Malay  race  found?  In  what  archipelago  is  the  greater  part  of  that  race?  What  two 
races  occupy  Africa?  Which  is  the  more  numerous?  In  what  part  is  the  Ethiopian 
race  ?    The  Caucasian  ? 

•  In  the  illustrations  the  animals  of  each  continent  are  arranged  in  the  genera'  order  of  their  latitude. 


POLITICAL   AND   COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY— GENERAL   REVIEW. 


123 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY-GENERAL   REVIEW. 


What  is  Political  Geography?  What  does  it  include?  Which  are  the  principal 
forms  of  government ?  What  is  a  republic?  A  monarchy?  A  limited  monarchy? 
An  unlimited  monarchy  ?  A  kingdom  ?  An  empire  ?  Give  an  example  of  each 
form  of  government.  What  form  of  government  prevails  in  the  New  World?  In  the 
Old  World  ?  What  empire  in  America  ?  What  republics  in  Europe?  What  title  is 
usually  given  to  the  chief  magistrate  of  a  republic?  Of  a  state?  Of  a  city?  To  the 
sovereign  of  Russia  ?  Of  Prussia  ?  Of  Germany  ?  Of  Turkey  ?  Of  Egypt  ?  Of 
Japan  ?     What  is  the  capital  of  a  country  ?     The  metropolis  ? 

What  countries  and  islands  of  North  America  and  the  West  Indies  belong  to  Great 
Britain?  To  Spain?  To  Denmark?  Which  are  independent?  Name  the  capital 
of  each  country  of  North  America,  Its  largest  city.  What  language  is  spoken  in  the 
City  of  Mexico?  Quebec?  New  Orleans?  Havana?  Guatemala?  Which  of  the 
countries  of  South  America  are  European  colonics?  Where  are  most  of  the  civilized 
inhabitants  of  that  continent?  Name  the  capital  of  each  country.  The  largest  city. 
What  language  is  spoken  in  Caracas?  In  Lima?  In  Rio  Janeiro?  In  Valparaiso? 
In  Bogota?  In  Buenos  Ayres?  How  do  the  Creoles  of  Spanish  America  compare 
with  the  other  races  in  numbers?  Which  state  of  South  America  has  the  largest 
proportion  of  Europeans  ? 

Which  countries  of  Europe  are  empires?  Which  are  republics?  Which  are  king- 
doms? Which  is  the  most  extensive  monarchy  in  the  world?  Which  is  next  in  ex- 
tent ?  Which  of  these  two  has  the  greater  population  ?  What  countries  are  embraced 
in  the  Russian  Empire  ?  In  what  country  is  the  greater  part  of  its  population  ?  Of 
what  races  and  religions  are  they?  What  countries  are  included  in  the  British  Em- 
pire ?  Of  what  races  and  religions  are  its  inhabitants  ?  In  what  country  are  the  greater 
part  of  the  inhabitants  ?  Of  what  countries  does  the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  consist?  Name  the  capital  and  one  large  city  in  each.  What  language  is 
spoken  in  London?  In  Edinburgh?  In  Dublin?  In  Wales?  {A >is.  Cymric.)  In 
Western  Ireland  ?  {A/is.Exse.)  In  St.  Petersburg  ?  In  Christiania?  In  Stockholm? 
In  Copenhagen  ?  In  Amsterdam  ?  In  Brussels  ?  In  Paris?  In  Berlin?  In  Vienna? 
In  Berne  ?  In  Lisbon  ?  In  Geneva  ?  In  Venice  ?  In  Naples  ?  In  Athens  ?  In 
Constantinople  ?     (Ans.  Many  languages.) 

Name  the  foreign  possessions  of  France.  What  name  is  given  to  the  Swiss  states  ? 
What  peoples  inhabit  Switzerland?  What  is  the  proper  title  of  Austria?  What 
provinces  are  included  in  the  empire?  (See  map.)  What  peoples  constitute  the  popu- 
lation ?     Which  is  the  most  numerous?     What  two  independent  principalities  are  on 


the  Danube  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  population  of  European  Turkey?  Which  is 
the  governing  people  ?  Of  what  race,  origin,  and  religion  ?  Name  the  provinces  of 
European  Turkey.  Who  is  the  head  of  the  Mohammedan  religion?  What  countries 
are  included  in  the  Turkish  Empire?  What  titles  are  sometimes  given  to  the  Turkish 
government?  (A/ts.  The  Ottoman  Porte  and  the  Sublime  Porte.)  What  are  the 
character  and  effects  of  the  government?  Name  the  colonial  possessions  of  Denmark. 
What  two  separate  kingdoms  of  Northern  Europe  have  the  same  king?  Which  of 
these  is  the  more  populous  and  powerful  ? 

Name  the  countries  of  Asia.  The  capital  of  each.  What  European  nations  have 
possessions  in  Asia?  Which  are  the  Asiatic  possessions  of  Russia?  Of  Great  Britain? 
Of  France  ?  Of  Turkey  ?  Of  the  Netherlands  ?  Of  Spain  ?  Name  the  divisions 
of  Asiatic  Russia.  Which  is  the  most  populous?  Name  its  capital.  Describe  the 
European  population  of  Siberia.  What  countries  are  included  in  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire ?  Name  in  their  order  five  governments  which  occupy  more  than  half  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  globe.  Where  are  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Chinese 
Empire?  What  is  the  form  of  government?  Name  the  chief  islands  of  Japan.  What 
is  the  character  of  the  government?  By  whom  is  British  India  governed?  Who  is 
Empress  of  India?  What  countries  are  included  in  Indo-China?  What  is  the  char- 
acter of  the  native  governments  of  Asia  ?     Who  are  the  Bedouins  ? 

To  whom  do  the  Philippines  belong?  What  is  the  capital?  What  city  is  the 
capital  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies?  Name  the  colonial  divisions  of  Australia.  What 
other  British  colonies  are  near  Australia?  To  whom  do  the  Feejee  Islands  belong? 
The  Society  Islands  ?  The  Sandwich  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  native  govern- 
ments of  Africa  ?  Name  its  most  important  countries.  Name  the  capital  of  each. 
What  countries  of  Africa  are  dependencies  of  Turkey?  Of  Egypt?  Where  are  the 
Portuguese  posses.sions ?  The  English?  The  French?  Name  the  Barbary  States. 
Which  of  them  is  independent?  What  two  independent  republics  in  Africa?  What 
coast  is  held  by  the  Arabs?  What  African  islands  belong  to  Great  Britain?  To 
France  ?     To  Spain  ?     To  Portugal  ? 

How  many  states  in  the  United  States  ?  How  many  territories  ?  What  is  the  form 
of  government  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  is  a  state  ?  A  territory?  Name 
the  physical  groups  into  which  the  United  States  may  be  divided.  Name  the  states 
in  each  group,  and  the  capital  and  largest  city  in  each  state. 

What  provinces  constitute  the  Dominion  of  Canada?  Describe  its  form  of  govern- 
ment ?     Name  the  capital  and  the  largest  city  of  each  province  ? 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY-GENERAL   REVIEW. 


What  is  domestic  commerce  ?  Foreign  commerce  ?  What  articles  of  commerce 
do  the  New  England  States  supply  to  other  parts  of  the  country  ?  The  Middle  Atlantic 
States?  The  South  Atlantic?  The  South  Central  ?  The  North  Central  ?  The  West 
Central  ?  The  Pacific  States  ?  The  rest  of  the  Great  Highland  ?  Which  is  the  chief 
article  of  export  of  the  United  States  ?  Name  other  leading  articles  of  export  to  Eu- 
rope. To  South  America.  To  Asia.  To  the  West  Indies.  Name  the  principal  im- 
ports of  the  United  States.  Name  in  their  order  five  of  its  chief  sea-ports.  With 
what  country  is  our  principal  foreign  commerce?  Which  are  the  chief  articles  of 
import  from  England?  Scotland?  France?  Germany?  Italy?  Brazil?  United 
States  of  Colombia  ?  Venezuela?  Mexico?  Cuba?  Canada?  China?  Japan? 
British  India?    Dutch  East  Indies?* 

From  what  countries  do  we  import  coffee  ?  Tea  ?  Sugar  and  Molasses  ?  Wool- 
len goods?  Cotton  goods?  Linens?  Silk  goods?  Raw  silk?  Iron  and  steel 
goods?  Salt?  Spices?  Fruits?  Rice?  Hides  and  skins?  Dye-woods?  India- 
rubber  ? 

Name  the  chief  Mediterranean  ports  of  Spain.  Of  France.  Of  Italy.  Of  Aus- 
tria. Of  Turkey.  Of  Egypt.  Of  the  Barbary  States.  Name  the  southern  ports 
of  Russia.  The  most  northern  port.  The  Baltic  ports  of  Russia.  Of  Sweden.  Of 
Denmark.  Of  Germany.  The  chief  Atlantic  ports  of  Norway.  Of  Germany.  Ofihe 
Netherlands.  Of  Belgiuin.  Of  France.  Of  Spain.  Of  Portugal.  Of  England.  Of 
Scotland.  Of  Ireland.  Of  British  North  America.  Of  the  United  States.  Of  Brazil. 
Of  Guiana.  Of  Uruguay.  Oflhe  Argentine  Confederation.  Of  Iceland.  Name  the  chief 
port  or  ports  of  the  Gulf  of  iMexico  or  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  belonging  to  the  United 
States.  To  Spain.  To  Mexico.  To  Great  Britain.  To  Venezuela.  To  the  United 
States  of  Colombia.  What  ports  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  are  in  China  ?  In  Indo-China  ? 
In  Japan?  In  the  United  States  ?  In  Mexico?  In  the  United  States  of  Colombia? 
InEqiiador?  In  Peru  ?  In  Chili  ?  In  Australia?  In  New  Zealand  ?  In  the  Sand- 
wich Islands?  Which  is  the  chief  port  or  ports  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies?  In  the 
Spanish  East  Indies  ?  On  the  southern  coast  of  Africa?  On  the  eastern  coast  ?  On 
the  Red  Sea?    The  Arabian  Sea?    The  Persian  Gulf?    The  Bay  of  Bengal  ? 


*  For  valuable  statistics  of  the  commerce  of  the  world,  see  page  126. 
38 


Tabular  Reviews. — In  addition  to  the  numerous  map  reviews  found  in  the  text 
of  this  work,  it  may  be  found  expedient  to  introduce  topical  reviews  in  the  form  of  tabu- 
lar synopses.  Models  are  given  below.  The  headings  for  the  colunms  may  be  greatly 
varied.     The  number  of  topics  for  each  lesson  is  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher. 


COUNTRIES. 

NORTH  BOUNDARY. 

EAST  BOUNDARY. 

SOUTH  BOUNDARY. 

WEST  BOUNDARY. 

Mexico 1 

United  States. 

Rio  Grande  and 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Central  America. 

Pacific  Ocean. 

United  States. . .  | 

Dora,  of  Canada. 

Atlantic  Ocean. 

Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  Mexico. 

Pacific  Ocean. 

COUNTRIES. 

SURFACE. 

MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS. 

RIVERS. 

LAKES. 

CLIMATE. 

Chili { 

Mountainous. 

Andes. 

None. 

None. 

Dry  in  N., 
Rainy  in  S. 

Argentine    \ 
Confederation  ( 

Level. 

Pampas. 

La  Plata, 
Parana. 

Salt  Lakes. 

Cold  and  dry 
in  S.,  Trop- 
ical in  N. 

COUNTRIES. 

GOVERN- 
MENT. 

RULER. 

CAPITALS. 

LARGEST 
a  TIES. 

EXPORTS. 

Austria j 

Limited 
Monarchy. 

Emperor. 

Vienna. 

Vienna. 

Wheat,  wine,  and  manu- 
factures. 

Italy { 

Limited 
Monarchy. 

King. 

Rome. 

Naples. 

Oil  and  manufactures. 

1 

STATES. 

MOUNTAINS. 

RIVERS  AND  LAKES. 

RAILROADS. 

PRODUCTS. 

CAPITALS  anc 

CHIEF  CITIES 

New  York...  j 

Adirondack, 
CalskiU. 

Hudson  R.,  Genesee  R. 
Seneca  L.,  Cayuga  L. 

N.  Y.C.&  Hud- 
son R,,N.V,L. 
Erie,  &  W. 

Iron,  Salt, 
Butler,Cheese, 
Manufactures. 

Albanv, 
New  York. 

Pennsylvania  I 

Alleghany, 
Blue,  etc. 

Susqiiehanna  R.,                 Pennsylvania 
Alleghanv  R., 
Monongahela  R.               | 

Iron,  Coa), 

Petroleum, 

Manufactures. 

Harrisburg, 
Philadelphia. 

124 


CARTOGRAPHY. 


CARTOGRAPHY. 


Order  of  the  Maps. — To  obtain  the  best  results  it  is  advised  that  the  maps  be 
taken  in  the  following  order:  1-  The  several  states  of  the  United  States;  3.  Groups 
of  states  ;  3.  The  continents ;  4.  Separate  countries  of  Europe  ;  5.  The  United  States ; 
6.  The  hemispheres. 

Materials  and  Conveniences. — 1.  Suitable  paper.  2.  Lead -pencils — No.  3 
will  generally  be  found  the  best  for  the  work  ;  keep  sharp  with  fine  file.  3.  Ruler — 
one  with  a  scale  is  best.  4.  A  flexible  ruler  will  be  found  convenient,  but  is  not  in- 
dispensable ;  it  should  be  a  thin  and  narrow  strip  of  cedar,  or  some  other  even-grained 
wood ;  a  good  piece  of  whalebone  m.iy  be  made  to  answer.  5.  Dividers  are  con- 
venient, but  may  be  dispensed  with.  6.  Ink  for  going  over  the  penciled  coast-lines, 
and  all  other  details ;  India  ink  is  the  best.  7.  Colors :  three  colors— blue,  yellow, 
and  red — are  indispensable  ;  by  proper  mixtures  of  these  all  other  necessary  colors 
may  be  made.  8.  Brushes,  or  hair-pencils,  of  different  sires,  for  laying  on  the  colors 
— two  or  three  are  enough.  It  is  also  important  to  have  two  or  more  right-angled 
rulers  of  different  sizes,  for  making  true  corners  to  the  maps,  etc.  They  may  be 
readily  constructed  of  cardboard  in  the  following  manner : 

Upon   a   stiff  piece    of  cardboard  ^ 

draw  a  straight  line,  A  B,  and  meas- 
ure off  two  equal  parts,  P  A  and  P  B. 
With  P  as  the  centre,  draw  the  semi- 
circle A  E  B.  From  any  point  on 
the  circumference,  as  D,  draw  lines  to 
A  and  B.  The  angle  D  is  a  right- 
angle.  Cut  the  card  on  the  three 
lines  forming  the  triangle  ;  use  a  sharp 
knife. 

It  will  often  be  necessary  to  divide  a  straight  line  into  a  certain  number  of  equal 
parts. 

1.  To  divide  a  line  into  3,  4,  8,  or  16  equal  parts,  when  you  have  neither  scale  nor 
dividers :  take  a  strip  of  writing-paper  having  a  straight  edge  and  just  as  long  as  the 
line  to  be  divided  ;  fold  it  very  carefully  once  for  halves,  twice  for  fourths,  etc.,  and 
then  measure  and  mark  these  divisions  upon  the  line. 

2.  To  divide  a  straight  line  into  any  niimher-  of  equal  parts.  Suppose  A  B  to  be 
the  line,  and  that  it  is  to  be  divided  into  five  equal  parts. 

From  either  end  draw        .  _^ h_ 

a  straight  line,  A  C,  of  any 
convenient  length,  and,  begin-  i^ 

ning  at  A,  measure  off  upon  A  C  as 
many  equal  parts  (5)  of  any  length  as  there 
are  to  be  in  A  B.     Draw  a  line  from  the  last  point 
(5)  to  B.     Now  from  points  4,  3,  3,  and  1  draw  lines  paral- 
lel to  the  line  5  B.     They  will  divide  A  B  into  five  equal  parts. 

To  draw  these  lines  exactly  parallel,  cut  from  a  card  an  angle  that  will 
exactly  fit  into  the  angle  at  5.     Put  one  side  of  this  card-angle  upon  the  line  A  C, 
with  the  point  exactly  at  4,  and  draw  the  line  4  b.     Do  the  same  at  3,  3,  and  1. 


METHOD  OF  DEAWING. 

Many  plans  have  been  devised  to  facilitate  the  accurate  copying  of  maps.  The 
simplest  and  most  efficient  is  the  method  of  equal  squares.  It  has  long  been  used  in 
copying  maps,  pictures,  plans,  etc.  The  following  example  will  sufliciently  illustrate 
the  method : 

To  draw  the  Map  of  North  America— 1.  Divide  the  map  into  equal  squares. 
Divide  the  upper  and  lower  inner  margins  into  four  equal  parts,  marking  the  points 
lightly  in  lead-pencil.  Commencing  at  the  upper  corners,  measure  off  on  the  right 
and  left  margins  distances  equal  to  the  divisions  of  the  upper  and  lower  margins. 
Connect  each  point  with  the  point  opposite  by  a  lightly  drawn  pencil  line.  Observe 
that  one  of  these  lines  is  the  central  meridian  of  the  map.  The  map  is  now  divided 
into  twenty  equal  squares  and  four  parts  of  squares.  These  last  may  be  omitted  in 
drawing,  if  it  be  thought  desirable.  If  retained,  notice  that  they  are  about  one  quarter 
as  wide  as  they  are  long. 

2.  Prepare  the  paper.  —  If  the  scale  of  the  map  is  to  be  the  same  as  that  in  the 
book,  construct  the  twenty  squares,  using  the  same  measures.  If  the  map  is  to  be  on 
a  larger  or  smaller  scale,  draw  a  line  of  suitable  length  for  the  upper  margin,  and 


divide  it  into  four  equal  parts.  At  the  ends  of  this  line  draw  two  others  at  right 
angles  to  it,  and  measure  off  upon  each  five  parts  equal  to  those  of  the  upper  line ;  join 
the  opposite  points,  and  complete  the  diagram  as  before.  Let  all  the  lines  be  drawn 
lightly,  so  as  to  be  easily  removed  with  the  rubber. 

3.  To  copy  the  map,  begin  with  the 
upper  left-hand  square,  and  draw  the  out- 
lines lightly  in  pencil,  being  careful  to 
observe  in  what  parts  of  the  square  they 
are  to  be,  and  where  they  cross  the  sides 
of  the  square,  and  so  proceed  with  each 
square.  While  drawing,  rest  your  hand 
upon  a  piece  of  paper,  so  as  not  to  soil 
your  map.  Always  work  from  above 
downward.  If  very  great  accuracy  is  de- 
sired, subdivide  each  of  the  squares,  both 
of  the  original  and  the  copy,  into  four 
or  more  smaller  squares,  and  proceed  as 
before.  The  greater  the  number  of 
squares,  the  more  accurate  may  the  copy 
be  made.  To  prevent  mistakes,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  number  or  letter  the  squares 
in  some  regular  order. 

If  the  meridians  and  parallels  are  to 
be  inserted,  mark  lightly  the  places  where 
they  cross  the  sides  of  the  squares,  and  draw  them  either  with  the  flexible  ruler  or 
with  the  free  hand. 

In  drawing  the  outlines,  include  only  the  coasts,  islands,  lakes,  rivers,  and  the 
boundaries  of  countries.  To  fill  in  the  details  and  complete  the  map,  observe  the 
following  order : 

1.  Go  over  the  meridians,  parallels,  and  outlines  slowly  and  carefully  with  a  fine 
pen  ;  use  thin  India  ink.  2.  Draw  the  mountains.— Vse  the  lead-pencil.  Practice  first 
on  a  piece  of  paper :  observe  that  the  lines  used  are  very  fine ;  that  they  are  divergent, 
not  parallel ;  that  they  are  in  small  groups,  each  of  which  has  a  blank  space  in  the 
middle  ;  that  the  higher  mountains  have  two  or  three  sets  of  lines  and  are  darker 
near  the  blank  centre.  3.  Letter  the  map.— Use  the  lead -pencil.  Practice  first  on 
paper :  be  very  careful  as  to  spacing  the  letters,  and  use  the  simplest  styles.  Begin 
with  the  names  which  are  in  large  capitals ;  then  insert  the  names  of  lakes,  rivers, 
cities,  capes,  etc.  As  far  as  possible  let  the  lines  of  letters  follow  the  direction  of 
the  parallels.  Go  over  mountains  and  letters  with  ink.  Clear  all  pencil  marks  from 
the  map  before  coloring.  4.  Color  the  map.— Use  only  clean  water  to  mix  the  colors. 
Do  not  color  too  strongly.     If  the  first  coat  is  too  weak  when  dry,  add  arother. 

To  avoid  drawing  pencil  tines  across  the  engraved  map. — This  may  readily  be 
done  in  any  one  of  several  ways.  The  following  is  the  easiest  and  best :  Procure 
at  the  stationer's  a  sheet  of  gelatine  paper,  such  as  is  used  in  copying  plans,  etc.  It 
is  nearly  as  transparent  as  glass.  The  piece  used  may  be  of  the  same  size  as  the 
map  in  the  book,  or  it  may  be  of  one  half  or  even  of  one  quarter  of  that  size.  If  of 
the  full  size,  rule  it  into  squares,  as  directed  in  2.  Blacken  the  lines  carefully  with 
ink,  and  let  them  dry,  and  repeat  the  process  if  necessary.  To  use  this  sheet  lay  it 
upon  the  map  with  the  lines  upon  the  under  side,  so  that  the  central  meridian  and 
margins  of  the  map  exactly  correspond  with  the  lines  upon  the  paper. 

If  a  sheet  of  one  half  or  one  quarter  the  size  is  used,  each  large  square  must  be 
divided  into  four  smaller  ones.  Lay  it  upon  the  map  so  that  its  edges  correspond 
with  the  central  meridian  and  the  margins,  and,  after  drawing  that  half  or  fourth  of  the 
map,  follow  the  same  plan  with  the  remaining  portions. 

Another  method,  very  suitable  for  home  work,  is  to  use  a  small  pane  of  glass  of 
the  half  size  or  quarter  size,  and  ruled  into  squares  with  a  common  pen  filled  with 
ordinary  black  paint  mixed  with  varnish.  Or  the  ruling  may  be  done  with  a  diamond, 
and  the  lines  blackened.  Use  with  the  ruled  side  down.  Still  another  plan  is  to 
make  a  frame  of  cardboard,  or  some  other  suitable  material,  and  divide  the  enclosed 
space  into  squares  by  means  of  fine  threads  or  wires. 

Additional  Hints. — Never  begin  to  draw  a  line  imtil  you  have  carefully  made 
up  your  mind  as  to  just  where  it  is  to  be  and  what  it  is  to  be. 

Small  squares  will  be  found  best  for  maps  of  separate  states. 

Observe  that  the  meridians  are  not  the  same  distance  apart  at  the  top  of  the  map 
as  at  the  bottom,  and  that  only  one  of  them  is  a  perfectly  straight  line. 

It  will  be  useful  to  remember  that  a  degree  on  the  central  meridian  is  about  sev- 
enty miles. 

The  single-page  maps  in  this  book  are  all  of  one  size,  but  are  not  drawn  on  the 
same  scale. 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


POPULATION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

[For  the  Popuktion  of  tbe  Principal  Cities  of  the  Uuited  SUtee,  Ceneiu  of  1870,  see  page  32.] 


KORTH  AMEttlCl. 

ItritiNh  Americft. 

Montreal, Queb.  ..107,225 
Quebec,  Queb....  Bil,09S 

Toronto,  Ont 4«,0i»2 

Halifax,  N.S 29.682 

St.  John,  N.  B....  2S,9.S8 
St.Jolms,  N.  F...  22,583 
Ottawa,  Ont 21,.'>4S 

Mexico. 

Mexico 200,000 

Leon 90,000 

Guadalaxara 7.^,000 

Puebla 0.%0(K) 

Gnanaxuato 03,000 

Queretaro 48,000 

Central  America. 

New  Guatemala..  40,000 

San  Jose 25,000 

San  Salvador..    ..  20,000 

West  Indies. 

Havana,  Cuba....  20C,0flO 

Santiago 96,000 

Kingston,  Jamaica  31,000 
Port   au    Prince, 

Hayti 21,000 

St.  Johns,  Porto 

Rico 18,000 

San  Domingo 15,000 


SOUTH  AHEBICA. 

Venezuela. 

Caracas 50,000 

Maracaybo ■.'0,000 

U.  S.  of  Colombia. 

Bogota 50,000 

Cartagena 18,000 

Panama 18,000 

Popayan 16,000 

Ecuador. 

Quito 70,000 

Guayaquil 20,000 

Peru. 

Lima 160,000 

Cuzco 40,000 

Callao 30,000 

Bollfla. 

La  Paz 83,000 

Cochabamba 45,0<H) 

Sucre 27,O0U 

Cliill. 

Santiago 148,26t 

Valparaiso 97,575 

Argentine  Confedera- 
tion. 

Buenos  Ayres 178,000 

Cordova 20,000 

Rosario 23,00 J 

Uruj'jay. 

Montevideo 60,000 

Paraguay. 

Asuncion 43,000 

Brazil. 

Rio  Janeiro 274,972 

Bahia 129,109 

Pernambnco SO,W)0 

Maranham 40,000 

Guiana. 

Georgetown 35,000 


Paramaribo 25.000  I  Granada 62,000 

Cayenne  ...   S>,000  ^  Cadiz 62,000 

Portugal. 

Lisbon 276,286 

Oporto 89,321 


EUROPE. 
\orway. 

Christiania 77,041 

Bergen 34,384 

Sweden. 

Stockholm 157,215 

Gottenburg 68,756 

Russia. 
St.  Petersburg.... 667,926 

Moscow 611,970 

Warsaw. 251,684 

Odessa 162,814 

Kishenev 103,998 

Riga  102,043 

Astrakhan 47,839 

Cronstadt 45,15'> 

Archangel 20,178 


Germany. 

Berlin 

Hamburg. . 

Breslau 

Dresden . . . 

Munich 

Elberfeld-Barmen. 

Cologne 

Leipsic 

Magdeburg 

Kbnigsberg 

Stuttgart 

Hanover 

Fraiikfort-on-the 

Main 

Dantzic 

S  trasbourg 

Nuremberg 

Bremen 


960,872 

345,801 
239,  (M 
197,295 
169,693 
147,890 
136,371 
127,387 
122,'iS9 
122,636 
107,273 
106,677 

10.3,186 
97,931 
94,340 
91,017 
82,960 


Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. I 

London 3,533,484  I 

Glasgow   555,933  j 

Liverpool 527,i»S3 

Manchester 500,397  ^ 

Birmingham 377,436  j 

Dublin 314.666  I 

Leeds •>91,5S0  I 

Sheffield 274,914 

Kdinburgh 218,729 

Bristol 199,539 

Belfast 174,394 

Bradford 173,723 

Dimdee 142,951 

Newcastle 139,929 

Hull 136,938 

Portsmouth 124,807 

Leicester 113,581 

Sunderland 108,348 

Brighton 100,632 

Aberdeen 98,181 

Merthyr  Tydvil..  97,020 

Nottingham 93,627 

Cork 18,382 

Denmark.  | 

Copenhagen  ..   ..181,291 

Netlierlands.  j 

Amsterdam 289,982  ! 

Rotterdam 132,0.64 

The  Hague 100,254 

Belgium.  | 

Brussels 376,965  ' 

Antwerp 146,101 

Ghent 130,092  | 

Liege 116,950  | 

France.  1 

Paris ....1,988,806  ! 

Lvons 342,816 

Marseilles 318,808 

Bordeaux 215,140 

Lille 102,775 

Toulouse 151,643 

St.  Etienne 126,019 

Nantes 122,247 

Rouen 104,902 

Havre 92,068 

•loulon 70..'>O9 

Brest 60,828 

Spain.  { 

Madrid 332,024  :  Cairo. 

Barcelona 180,000  I  Alexandria 212,0I>4 


Austria. 

Vienna 1,001,999 

Pesth 202,000 

Prague 189,949 

Trieste 109,824 

Lemberg 87,109 

Gratz 81,119 

Switzerland. 

Geneva 40,783 

Basle 44,834 

Berne 36,001 

Zurich 21,199 

Italy. 

Naples 44S,743 

Milan -.61,976 

Rome 244,484 

Palermo 219,938 

Turin 207,770 

Florence ..107,093 

Genoa 130,269 

Venice 128,901 

Bologna 116,957 

Messina 111,864 

Leghorn 97,096 

Boumanla. 

Bucharest 221,150 

Jassy i'O.oOO 

Gaiatz 80,000 

Serrla. 

Belgrade 27,605 

Turl£ey. 

Constantinople. .  .400,000 
Adrianople 50,000 

Greece. 

Athens 46,000 


AFRICA. 


Barbary  States. 

Tunis 12.'),flOO 

Fez 100,000 

Mequinez 100,000 

Morocco .60,000 

Algiers 49,000 


Egypt. 


.34ft,a83 


Malaga  93,nfl<i 

Valencia 87,000 

Seville 82,000 


Damietta 29,383 

Suez 13,498 

PortS^id 9,000 


ASIA. 

Turkey. 

Smyrna  150,000 

Damascus 120,000 

Beirut ....100,000 

Erzioom 100,00(1 

Brusa 100,000 

Jerusalem 26,000 

Asiatic  Russia. 

Bokhara 150,000 

Tashkend 100,000 

Tiflis 71,IKK) 

Irkoutsk 30,000 

Tobolsk. 20,000 

Cliliia. 

Pekin 1,640,000 

Canton 1,000,000 

Tientsin 930,000 

Han^chau   800,000 

Fuh-chau 600,000 

Nankin 500,000 

Ningpo 400,0(K) 

Shanghai 277,000 

Amoy 200,000 

Yarkand l-'O.OOO 

Hong  Kong...    102,000 
Kashgar 80,000 

Japan. 

Tokio  (Yedo) 790,000 

Ozaka 414,000 

Kioto S75,(HH) 

Nagasaki   30,000 

Yokohama 25,000 

HIndostan. 

Bombay 047,000 

Calcmta 010,000 

Hyderabad 400,000 

Madras 356,000 

Lucknow 286,000 

P,itna. 284,0(K) 

Benares .203,000 

Delhi 152,000 

Indo-Cblna. 

Bankok..  .600,000 

Singapore 16J,030 

Saigon 120,00(1 

Hue..... 100,000 

Afghanistan. 

Cabul. 60,000 

Kandahar 50,000 

Herat 46,000 

Persia. 

Tabriz 110,000 

Teheran 85,CKI0 

Meshed. 70,000 

Ispahan. 00,000 

Arabia. 

Mecca 4.6,000 

Muscat.... 35,000 

Malay  Islands. 

Manila. 165,000 

Surabaya 90,000 

Batavia 65,000 

Australia. 

Melbourne 194,000 

Svdney 13.%000 

B'allarat... 74,(K)0 

Adelaide 27,000 

Hobart  Town  ....  20,000 
Auckland 20,000 


MILITARY  AND  COMMERCIAL  STATISTICS. 

[For  Area  and  Population  of  CouDtriea  and  States,  see  Tables  io  tbe  Text.] 


Countries. 


'S;. '«••"">•>• 


Korth  America. 

Dominion  of  Canada. . . . 

British  West  Indies 

Mexico 

United  States. .   - .   

Central  America 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 

Hayti 

San  Domingo 


South  America. 

Argentine  Confederation.. 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chili 

United  States  of  Colombia 

Ecuador. 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


Europe. 

Austro-Hungary 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France 

German  Empire 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Greece 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Ponugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Norway 

Switzerland 

Turkish  Empire 


Asia,  Africa,  etc. 

China 

Japan 

Persia 

British  East  Indies . . 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Egypt  

Australia,  etc 

Sandwich  Islands 


21,000 
32,000 


0,500 


0,500 
3,000 
25,000 
3,500 
1,500 
1,500 
4,700 
8,000 
4,700 


283,000 

40,000 

17,000 

464,000 

402,000 

192,000 

12.000 

205,000 

02,000 

33,000 

706,000 

284,000 

1.60,000 

12,000 

201,000 

93,000 


820,000 

30,000 

114,000 

200,000 

14,000 
3,200 


Siipt. 


20 


17 


47 


35 
1440 


10 


473 
34 
291 

384 
3000 

128 
056 
981 
288 
1701 
839 
661 
043 


70 


1760 


Imports 
for  1874. 


$87,000,000 

32,000,000 
025,000,000 

47,000,000 

7,0011,001! 

600,000 


67,000,000 

0,000,000 

86,000,COO 

27,000,000 

8,000,000 

6,000,000 

44,000,000 

10,000,000 

6,000,00(, 


294,000,000 

240,000,000 

22,11110,000 

089,000,000 

454,000,000 

1,805,000,000 

17,000,0011 

252,00:1,000 

82,000,000 

27,000,000 

414,000,000 

89.fMJO,000 

46,000,000 

27,O0O,0(Kl 

82,000,000 

59,000,000 


117,000,000 
29,000,000 
11,fKX),000 

203,000,000 

24,'o6o,000 
180,000,000 


Exports 
for  1874. 


$74,000,000 

20Jo6o,000 
031,000,000 

4oi6oo,ooo 

7,000,000 
750,000 


Tr»le  with  the  United  SUte^ 
1874. 


To  V.  8. 
$38,00(1,000 
6,000,000 
13,350,000 

3l6oO,Oflfl 

93,000,000 

1,600,000 

400,000 


4,600,000 


,000,000 

,000,000 

000,000      44,000,000 

OoOjOOOi  660,000 


000,000 
000,0(PO 
000,000 
000,000 
000,000 


210,000,000 

203,000,000 

11,000,000 

720,000,000 

425,000,000! 

1,220,000,000 

10,000,000 

249,000,000 

09,000,000 

21,000,000 

31l,000,0flfl 

68,000,000 

4.3,000,(«1fl 

21,000,000 

78,000,000 

20,000,000 


122,000,000 

20,0011,000 

1,000,000 

344,000,000 

73/i6o,000 
108,000,000 


7,750,000 

1^266,000 
2,600,000 
6,500,000 


600,000 

5,760,000 

800,000 

62,000,000 

44,000,(H10 

194,000,(«IO 

200,000 

8,500,000 

2,600,000 

600,000 

1,2,60,000 

4,5(H!,000 

\  2,000,000 


18,000,000 
6,500,000 

15,0(16,000 
4,000,000 

1,750,000 
1,000,000 


From  U.S. 
$50,000,000 
10,000,000 
0,000,000 

L666,00O 

22,000,000 

4,-600,000 

500,000 


2,760,000 

7,750,000 
2,7,W,000 
5,800,000 

2,566,000 
1,260,000 
2,333,000 


1,750,000 
21,000,000 

2,600,000 

61,000,000 

67,000,000 

3S1,000,(K)0 

333,000 

8,,')00,000 
14,000,000 

1,750,000 
10,833,000 
11,500,000 

2,333,000 
2^566,000 


1,066,000 
1,800,000 

10,333,000 
1,500,000 

3,786,000 
066,000 


LENGTH  AND  AREA  OF  BASIN  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RITERS  OP 
THE  WORLD  IN  ENGLISH  MILES. 


OLD    "WOBLD. 


LcDcth 
Rivers. 


Area 

of 
Ba^io. 


Nile,  Africa 

obi,  Siberia 

Yenisei,  Siberia 

Yang  tse  Kiantr.  ( 'l^na 

Zamoesi,  South  Africa 

N  iger,  Central  Africa 

Lena,  Siberia  .  _. , . . . 

Amoor,  Amooria 

Volga,  Russia 

Murray,  S.  Eastern  Australia  . 
Brahmapootra,  South  India. . . 

Orange,  South  Alrica 

Ganges,  India 


4,0J0 
3,000 
3,400 
3,320 
1,000 
3,000 
2,700 
2,650 
2,000 
1,500 
2,300 
1,000 
1,010 


1,426,000 
1,280,000 
1,040,000 
960,000 
900,000 
800,000 
800,000 
786,000 
(100,000 
500,000 
450,000 
440,000 
410,000 


NEW    WORLD. 


Amazon,  South  America 

Mississippi  (entire),  U.  S 

La  Plata,  South  America 

Mackenzie,  British  N.  America  . 

St.  Lawrence,  Canada 

Saskatchawan,  Brit.  N.  America. 

OrinocOj  South  America 

Columbia,  North  America 

Colorado,  U.  S.,  N.  America. .. 
San  Francisco,  Brazil,  S.  Amer. . 

RioGiande,  U.  S.,N.  A 

Yukon.  Alaska 

Colorado,  Texas     


Lencth 

Area 

of 

of 

Rivere. 

Beein. 

3,750 

2,275,000 

4,200 

1,244,000 

2,300 

1,242,000 

2,800 

590,000 

2,000 

480,000 

1,900 

478,000 

1,560 

340,000 

1,020 

298,000 

1,000 

267,000 

1,650 

280,000 

1,500 

240,000 

1,000 

200,000 

600 

86,000 

Area  and  Fopnlatloii  of  tlie  World. 


CHIEF  RELIGION'S  OF  THE  WORLD Christians,  894,000,000 ;  Buddhists  (Asia),  300,000,000  to  .600,- 

000,000;  Brahmins  (India),  145,000,000;  Religion  of  Confucius  (China),  (•.0,000,000  to  100,000,000;  Shinto 
Religion  (Japan),  12,000,000  to  20,000,000;  Mohammedanism,  199,fl0(),000 ;  Judaism,  7,0O0,0tHl. 


Europe 

Asia    

.Africa - . 

North  America. 
South  America. 
.'Australia,  etc. . . 


8,7S,s,nflO 
17,210,000 
ll,.645,00(i 
9,;!0S,O00 
6,85.6,000 
3,4(iO,(XiO 


Totals ;S2,500,000 


Popul.tion.    |,;-;S°t 


Chief  Divisions  of  Christians. 


Continente. 


Roman         -    .    .     .  EHBtem 

Caliiolic      Proteetanta.      Churchee. 


315,929,mMI 

834, 707, 000 1 

205,700,000i 

7fl,.6fl0,(100 

28,104,000 

4,060,0001 


4S 
18 

4 

IX 


1,459,000,000]       28 


Europe ._. .. 

North  America. 
South  America. 

Asia 

Africa .... 
Aust.  and  Polyn. 

Totals ,201,,S0O.O0O|111,20O,O00|81,00O,00O 


148,000,000 

24,000,000 

23,000,000 

6,000,000 

1,000,000 

800,000 


72,000,000 
32,000,000 
1,000,000 
2,000,000 
2,000,000 
2,200,000 


9,000,000 
3,000,000 


HEIGHTS  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


North  America. 

Feel. 

Mt.  Si.  Elias Coast  Mountains 17,900 

Popocatepetl Mexico 17,640 

Orizaba "       17,170 


Whitney Sierra  Nevada 

Maimer Cascade  Mountains  . 

.Shasta  (vol.) '■  " 

Tyndall Sierra  Nevada 

Mt.  Harvard Rocky  Mountains  . . 

Grays  Pe  ik *'  '• 

Mt.  Lincoln "  "  ... 

Longs  Peak *'  **  . . . 

Uncompahgre  Peak. .      "  '* 

Vale     " 

Pikes  Peak "  ** 


.  14,900 
.14,444 
.  14,440 
.14,386 
.14,.S84 
.14,341 
.14,207 
.14,271 
.14,2!i6 
.11,1.'iO 
.  1 1,147 


North  America — Continued. 


Mt.  Holy  Cross. Rocky  Mountains 14,000;  Mt.  Rosa Swiss  Al 

Matterhorn "         " 

South  America.  Finster  Aarhoin "        " 

Aconcagua Andes 22,422    I;'"*/"?"- 

Sahama(vol.) "  22,860     Mt.  Is^ran 

Chimborazo  (vol.) "  21.424 

.Sorata...    "  21,280 

Illiinani " 21,146 

"  19,600 

"  , 19,137 


Cotopaxi  (vol.). 
Antisana  (vol.).. 


Europe. 

Mt.  Blanc French  Alps 1.6,1 


Enro|ie — Continued. 

Feet. 

1.6,223 

"    14.836 

"    14,096 

"         "    l.'i,718 

French  Alps 1.3,271 

Mt.  Mulhacen Sierra  Nevada 11,060 

P.  Nelliou Pyrenees 11,168 

Etna  (vol.) Si'cily  . . : 10,840 

Vesuvius  (vol.) Italy 3,948 


Asia. 


Asia— Continued. 

FMt. 

Dhawalaghiri Himalaya 20,820 

Hindoo-koosh    20,000 

Mt.  Elburz Caucasus 18,672 

Mt.  Demavend Persia 18,600 

Mt.  Ararat Turkey 10,960 

Fujiyama  (vol. ) Japan j 14,000 

AfHca. 

Kilima  Njaro. 20,065 

Ml.  Kenia 18,000 


Everest Himalaya 29,002 

Dapsani; Kara  Korum 28,278 

Kincliinjunga Himalaya 28,166  ,  Mt.  Hotbam. 


Australia. 

Mt.  Kosciusko Australian  Alps 7,1 


Jps 


126 


STATISTICAL  TABLES.— PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY. 


STATISTICS  OF  AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  1869  — CENSUS  OF  1870. 


Stat«t  and  TerritoriM. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas. 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts . . . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire. 

^ew  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina . . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island  . . . 
South  Carolina... 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia. . . . 

Wisconsin  

The  Territories. . 


6,0U2,204 
1,859,821 
6,218,133 
1,040,752 
698,116 
736,172 
0,831,850 

19,329,952 

10,104,279 
9,396,407 
1,971,003 
8,103,860 
2,045,640 
2,917,793 
2,914,007 
1,730,221 
5,090,939 
2,322,102 
4,209,146 
9,1811,615 
647,031 
92,644 
2,334,487 
1,976,474 

],%027,206 
6.258,742 

14,469,133 
1,116,290 

11,516,965 
289,030 
.3,010,5.19 
6,S43,278 
2,064,836 
3,073,267 
8,166,040 
2,5S0,'i54 
6,899,343 
726,483 


Com. 


Wheat. 


Bushela. 
16,977,948 
13,382,146 

1,221,222 

1,670,364 

8,010,390 

2,225,050 
17,640,469 
129,921,395 
51,094,638 
68,935,065 
17,025,526 
50,091,006 

7,690,628 

1,089,SS8 
11,701,817 

1,397,807 
14,080,288 

4,743,117 
1.6,687,316 
66,034,075 

4,736,710 
9,660 

1,277,768 

8,74.%3S4 
16,462,825 
18,4.54,216 
67,501,144 
72,138 
34,702,006 
311,967 

7,614,207 
41,.'!43,0I4 
20,.'>54,53S 

1,099,882 
17,619,304 

8,197,806 
15,033.998 

1,189,386 


1,055,068 

741,736 

16,676,702 

39,144 

896,477 

2,127,017 

30,128,405 

27,747,222 

29,435,092 

2,390,298 

6,728,704 

9,900 

278,703 

5,774,503 

34,614 

16,265,773 

18,866,073 

274,479 

14,315,926 

2,125,086 

228,866 

193,621 

2,301,433 

12,178,462 

2,159,879 

27,a82,159 

2,840,746 

19,672,967 

784 

78,3,610 

6,188,916 

416,112 

4.64,703 

7,398,787 

2,483,.'S43 

25,6II6,I!46 

1,845,164 


Oala. 


Bua/ifla. 

770,866 

528,777 

1,767,507 

1,114,695 

664,388 

114,204 

1,904,001 

4-2,780,861 

8,690,409 

21,006,142 

4,097,926 

6,620,103 

17,782 

2,381,3.54 

8,221,643 

797,664 

8,954,466 

10,678,261 

414,1586 

10,678,313 

1,477,602 

55,910 

1,140,461 

4,009,830 

36,293,626 

3,220,106 

26,.'!47,549 

2,029,909 

30,478,586 

167,010 

613,.593 

4,513,315 

762,063 

8,602,4.30 

6,857,565 

2,41.-1,749 

20,180,010 

1,093,857 


Potatoes 
(White), 


102,612 

422,196 
2,049,227 
2,789,894 

362,724 
10,218 

197,101 
10,1144,790 
6,399,044 
8,914,620 
2,342,988 
2,891,062 
67,696 
7,771,00,1 
1,632,208 
3,025,440 
10,318,799 
1,943,003 

214,189 
4,288,861 

739,984 

129,249 
4,61.6,419 
4,70.6,439 
2S,547,.693 

738.803 
11,192,814 

481,710 
12,889,807 

669,408 

83,2.62 
1,124.337 

208,383 
6,167,428 
I,2!l8,a63 
1,053,507 
6,646,129 

963,6.66 


Potatoes 
(Sweet), 


Buahfla. 

1,871,360 

890,031 

202,036 

867 

85,309 

789,4.66 

2,621, .662 

822,611 

160,705 

34,292 

49,633 

802,114 

1,02.3,706 

3.64 

218,706 

917 

3,051 

1,694 

1,743,432 

241, -2.63 

702 

160 

1,650,784 

10,0.66 

3,071,840 

230,296 

1,970 

13l,.672 

142 

1,342,166 

1,205,083 

2,188,041 

90 

866,882 

40,984 

2,220 

664 


Total ,   188,921,099    700,944,649  |  287,067,656  |  282,107,157  I  143,.337,473  !  21,709,824 


Totiacco, 


162,742 

594,886 

63,809 

8,328,798 

250 

167,406 

288,596 

6,249,274 

9,325,392 

71,792 

33,241 

105,305,869 

16,.641 

15 

15,785,339 

7,312,885 

6,386 

8,247 

61,012 

12,320,4-i3 

6,988 

26 

165,334 

40,871 

2,349,798 

11.150,087 

18,741,973 

3,847 

3,407,6,39 

796 

34,806 

21,46.6,4,52 

59,706 

72.671 

37,080,864 

2,046,462 

960,813 

11,859 


Cotton. 


Balei. 
429,482 
247,968 
34 


39,789 

473,984 

465 

3 

•■••  ^ 

1,080 
350,832 


564,938 
1,246 


224,.600 
181,842 
850,028 

"183 

2 


Wool. 


l\iuncta. 

381,253 

214,781 

11,391,743 

261,129 

58,310 

37,662 

840,947 

6,739,249 

.6,029,023 

2,967,048 

836,006 

2,234,460 

140,428 

1,774,108 

436,213 

306,689 

8,726,146 

401, ia6 

288,285 

3,649,890 

74,085 

27,0.'9 

1,129,442 

336,609 

10,1599,226 

799,667 

20,539,643 

1,080,038 

6,661,722 

77,:!28 

156,314 

l,38',l,762 

1,261,828 

3,102,137 

877,110 

1,593,!541 

4,090,670 

1,204,590 


Batt«r. 


3,218,763 
2,75;t,931 
7,969,744 
6,716,007 
1,171,908 
100,989 
4.499,572 

30.083,406 

22,915,386 

27,512,179 
6,022,7.68 

11,874,978 
822,405 

11,036,482 
5,014,729 
6,559,161 

24,400,185 
9,522,010 
2,618,521 

14,4.65,826 
1,539,635 
110,880 
6,965,080 
8,200,023 
107,147,526 
4,297,8.34 

60,260,872 
1,418,373 

00,834,644 

941,199 

1,461,980 

9,571,009 

3,712,747 

17,844,396 
6,979,269 
5,044,475 

22,473,036 
1,a6«,70S 


262,735,341    3,011,996  1 100,102,387  I  514,002,683 


Hay. 


Tunt. 

10,618 

6,839 

551,773 

663,328 

41,890 

17 

10,513 

2,747,3:19 

1,070,708 

1,777,339 

490.289 

204,399 

8,776 

1,068,415 

223,119 

597,456 

1,290,923 

695,053 

8,824 

016,611 

109,354 

33,866 

612,048 

621,975 

6,614,206 

83,540 

2,289,.666 

75,i67 

2,848,219 

89,045 

10,665 

116,,')S2 

18,982 

1,020,009 

199,883 

224,164 

1,287,651 

86,668 


MANUFACTURING. 


MINING. 


Capital. 


$5,714,032 

1,782,913 
39,728, 21  (2 
95,281,278 
10,839,093 

l,079,9yO 
13,9;{0,125 
94,368,057 
62,052,426 
22,420,183 

4,319;0(i0 
29,277,809 
18,313,974 
39,790,190 
36,438,729 
231,077.802 
71,712,283 
11,993,729 

4,501,714 
80,267,244 

2,169,963 

6,127,790 

36,02:i,743 

79,606,719 

366,994,320 

8,140,473 
141,923,904 

4,376,849 

406,821,845 

60,657,322 

6,400,418 
15,595,295 

6,284,110 
20,329,637 
18,455,400 
11,084,620 
41,981,872 
16,249,697 


$13,040,  ftM 

4,629,234 

60,594,506 

161.065,474 

16,791,382 

4,085,403 

31,196,115 

205,020,672 

108,617,278 

40,534,322 

1 1,775,833 

54,625,809 

24,161,905 

79,497,521 

76,693,013 

553,912,568 

118,394,070 

23.110,700 

8,154,758 

206,213.429 

6,738,612 

15,870,539 

71,038,249 

169,237,7.*t2 

785,194,051 

19,021,327 

209,7i;{,610 

6,877,387 

711,894,344 

in,418,3M 

9,858,981 

34,362.636 

11,517,302 

32,lS4,(i06 

38,304,.S22 

24,102,201 

77,214,326 

2;{,5(K),471 


CnpiUl. 


$39,600 

20,079,975 

1,490,  UK) 

89,210 

145,800 

4,814,123 

610,692 

756,224 

179,130 

701,450 

1(K) 

597,708 

25,369,730 

944,250 

9,962.874 

18,5(« 

8,489,250 

14,850 

32,253,400 

203,450 

2,501, 7(K) 

4,696,091 

1,85;!,  100 

9,017,197 

321,520 

64,660,276 

80,000 

137,000 

944,829 

160 

2,494,700 

1,11.%)IOO 

2,554,499 

737,728 

9,440,588 


27,316,048  I  $2,1 18,208.769  ,  $4,232,325,442   $222,384,854 


$52,500 

8,281,633 

1,227,400 

10,800 

*  49,280 

6,968,201 

1,137,172 

1,063,4^4 

174,278 

609,246 

1,200 

621,738 

3,444,183 

1,493,522 

7,199,118 

36,350 

3,472,513 

30,130 

11,166,462 

323,805 

2,554,476 

4,324,051 

6;i8,302 

7,761,544 

417,797 

76,2(18,390 

69,000 

19,888 

776,292 

900 

905.410 

400,914 

2,538,631 

610,982 

4,62t',in4 


$162,598,994 


PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY. 


Abbeoktitn Ab  bg  o  koo' ta. 

Abeideeu Ab  er  deeii'. 

Abyesiiiiii Ab  is  tsiu'e  a. 

Aciipiilco Ac  a  pool'  CO. 

Acaiay Ah  cuh  ri'. 

Acari Ac  a  lee'. 

Acheeii A  cheen'. 

Aconcagua Ac  im  cali'gwa. 

Acre A'  ker. 

Adeliiide Ad' e  lade. 

Aden Ah' den. 

Adi^e Ad'  e  je. 

Adirondack Ad  e  r<»n'  dack. 

Admiralty Ad' me  ral  ty. 

Adi'iau A' die  an. 

Adrianople A  die  an  o'  p'l. 

Adriatic A  die  at'  ic. 

Aegean K  je'  an. 

Afghanistan. Al'  t,'an  is  Ian'. 

Agua8Caliente8...Ag'  waa  Cal  e  eu'- 

te:?. 

Agulhas A  g.iol'yaB. 

Aisne Ane. 

Aix-lrt-Chapeile  . . .  Aks-ln-Sha  pel'. 

Ajaccio A  vat'  cho. 

Akaba Ak'abah. 

Akron Ak'rnn. 

Alabama Al  a  bah' ma, 

■Alaud Ah' land. 

Alaska A  las'ka. 

Albania Al  ha' ne  a. 

Albany Awl'  ha  ny. 

Albemarle Al  be  miule'. 

■Albert  Nyauza....Al'    bert    N'yahii'- 

za. 

Allniqiierqiie Al  boo  ker'  kay. 

Alderney Awl'  der  ny. 

Aleppo A  lep'  po, 

Aleutian A  I'yu'  she  au, 

Alexandra Al  ex  an'dra, 

Alexandria Al  ex  an'  die  a. 

,Ali;ier8 Aljeerz'. 

Alicante Al  e  can'  te. 

Alleghany Al'  le  gay  ny. 

,  Allegheny.-. Al'  le  g.iy  ny. 

Alsace Al  salice'. 

Altai Al  ti'. 

Aliamahn Al  ta  ma  haw'. 

,  Alton Awl'  t(»n. 

Altonn Al'  to  nn. 

AlCooua Al  too'na. 

Amazon \  ni'  a  zon. 

Amesbiiry Ainz'  i)er  ry, 

Amherst." Am' erst. 

Aniieus A  m'  e  enz. 

Anion A  moi>'. 

Amoor. A  moor'. 

Amsterdam Am'  ster  dam. 

Anam A  nam'. 

Aucona An  cn'na. 

Andaman An  da  man'. 

Andes.., An'  deez. 

Andorra An  dnr'ra. 

Andover. .\w'  do  ver. 

Androscoggin An  dros  cog'  gin. 

Angara, , An  ga  rah', 

Arigleeea Ang'  g'l  ^e. 

Angula An  go'  la. 

Angostura An  gos  too'  ra. 

AnhalT..,,. .... ....  Ahii'hnhU, 

Aiikobar Vn  ko'  ber. 


Annapolis An  nnp'o  lis. 

Autalo Au  lah'  lo. 

Antarctic Ant  arc'  lie. 

Anlicosti An  te  cos'  le. 

Antietam An  tee' tarn, 

Antilles An  teelz'. 

Antioqnia An  te  o  kee'  a. 

AntwiMp Aut'  werp. 

Apenniuui: Ap'  en  iiTuz. 

Apostle A  pus'  1. 

Appiilachian Ap  pa  la'che  an. 

Appalachee Ap  pa  lach'e. 

Appalachicola Ap  pa  lach  e  co'  la 

AppomaUox Ap  |io  mat'  tox. 

Arnl) Ar'  al>. 

Araguay Ar  a  gway', 

Aral Ar'  al. 

Ararat Ar'  a  rat. 

Archangel Ark  ane'jel. 

Arcliipelago Ark  e  pel'  a  go. 

ArdenneB Ar  den'. 

Areqnipa Ah  ray  kee' pa. 

Argentine Ar'jen  tine. 

Argyle Ar  ghjle'. 

Arica A  ree'ca. 

Arizona Ar  i  z*)'  na. 

Arkansas Ar  kan'  zns. 

Ariibeim Am'  hime. 

Aroostook A  roos'  took. 

Ascension As  cen'  shun. 

Ashantee. A^h  an  tee'. 

Ashtabula Ash  ta  bu'  la. 

Asia A' she  a. 

Aspiiiwatl As'  pin  wall. 

Assineboiu As  sin'  e  boiu. 

Astrakhan   As  ira  kan'. 

Asuncion Ah  soon  se  one'. 

Atacama At  a  cah'ina. 

Atbara At  bah'  ra. 

Atchafalaya Atch  a  fa  li'a. 

Atchison Atcii'  e  son. 

Athabasca Aih  a  bas'ca. 

Atoll A'tol. 

Auburn Aw' burn. 

Auckland Awk'  laud. 

AugiK-*ta Aw  guf*' ta. 

Augsburg Awgs'  burg. 

Aurora Aw  ro'  ra. 

Au  Sable Osah'b'l. 

Aiisterlitz Aws'  ter  lilz, 

Australia Aws  tra' le  a. 

Auvergne. O  vairn'. 

Avignon Ah  veeu  J'oug', 

Avon A'  von. 

Azof Az'  ()f.^ 

Azores A  zorz'. 

Bnalbec Bahl'  bee. 

Bab  el  Mandeb Bab  el  Man'  deb. 

Babylon Bab'  e  Ion. 

Badaj(ts Bad  a  hose'. 

Baden Bah'  den. 

Bagdad IJag  dad'. 

Bahama Ba  ha'  ma. 

Biihia Bah  ee'  a. 

Bahrein Bah  rine'. 

Baikal  ., Bi' kal. 

Balaklava..., Bal  a  klah'va. 

Balearic , Bal  e  ar'ic. 

Balizfi Ba  leez'. 

Balkan. Bal  kan'. 


Balkash Bahl  kahsh'. 

Ballston  S^m Bawlz' ton  Spah. 

Ba  Imoral Bal  mo  ral'. 

Baltic Bawl' tic. 

Baltimore Bawl'  te  more. 

Banca Bang'ca. 

Bangor Bang'  gor. 

Banjennassiu Bahnyer  niahseiu'. 

Bankok Ban  kitk'. 

Baranoft' Ba  ran'  (»ff. 

Barbadoes Bar  ba'  dtize. 

Barbary Bar'  ha  ry. 

Barbuda Bar  bu'da. 

Barcelona Bar  ce  lo'na. 

Barfleur Bar  tl'yure'. 

Bariniul Bar  nowl'. 

Bariiegat Bar'  ue  gat. 

Basle Bahl. 

Bassorah Bas'  so  ra. 

Bathurst Bath'  erst. 

Baton  Rouge Bah  t'n  Koozh'. 

Bavaria Ba  va'  re  a. 

Bayoune Bah  yim'. 

Bayou  Sara Bi'oo  Sa'ra. 

Beiiufort Bu'  f<»rt  (S.  C). 

Beaufort Bo'  fort  (Af.). 

Bedouin Bed  oo  eeii'. 

Behring Beer'  ing. 

Bei  rn  t Bi'  root. 

Belfast Bel  fast'. 

Belgium Bel' je  um. 

Beliirade Bel  grade'. 

Bellefoiite Bel  ^nit'. 

Belle  Isle Bel  He'. 

Beloit. Be  loit'. 

Beloochistau Be  hio  chis  tan'. 

Benare-i" Be  nah'  res. 

Bencoolen Ben  coo'  len. 

Benevento Ben  e  ven '  to. 

Bengal Ben  gawl'. 

Bengazi Ben  gah'  ze. 

Benguela Ben  ga'  ta. 

Henicia Be  lll^h'e  a. 

Ben  Lomond Ben  Ln'  mond. 

Ben  Nevis. Ben  Ne'  vis. 

Berbera Ber  be'  ra. 

Bergen Ber'  gen. 

Berlin Ber  lin'. 

Bcrniuda Ber  mil'  da, 

Berne Bern. 

Besancoi) Bav  znhng'song. 

Bilbon Bil'bo'n. 

Bingen Bing'  en. 

Birmingham Bir'  ining  ham. 

Biscay Bib'  cay. 

Blanco Blang'  ko. 

Blauqiiilla Blahn  keel'ya. 

Blenheim Bleu'  hinie. 

Bogota Bo  go  tab'. 

Boisf' Bwah  za'. 

Bojador Bod  ja  dore'. 

Bokhara Bok  hah'  ra. 

Bolivar B<d'  e  var. 

Bolivia Bo  liv'  e  a. 

Bolo<;na Bo  lone'  ya. 

Bombay Bom  bay'. 

Bonifacio Bon  e  fah'cho. 

Boothia Boo'  the  a. 

Bordeaux Bore  do'. 

Borgne... Born. 

Bornholm Born' holme. 


Bm-neo Bor'ue  o. 

Bosna  Serai Bos'  ua  t  e  ri'. 

Bo.'<uia Boz'  lie  a, 

Bosporus Bos'  po  rus. 

Boston Btjs'  ton. 

Bothnia Both'  ne  a. 

Boulogne Boo  lone'. 

Bt)wdoin Bo'd'n. 

Bowling  Green Bo' ling  Green. 

Boy  lie... ..Boin. 

Brahinai>ootr;t Bnih  ina  poo'  tra. 

Braiideiihnig Bran'  den  buorg. 

Brauiifels Brown'  fels. 

Brazil Bra  zeel'. 

Brazos Braz'  os. 

Bremen Breni'  en. 

Bremerhaven Bru'mer  hah  feu. 

Breslau Bres'  law. 

Bretague Bre  lahn'. 

Breton lire' ton. 

Brindisi Briu'de  se. 

Britain Brit't'u. 

Brookline Brook' line. 

Brooklyn Brook' lin. 

Bruges Broo' jiz. 

Bninai Broo  ni'. 

Brunn Brooii. 

Brnsa Brno'  sa. 

Brussels Brns'  selz. 

Bucharest Boo  ka  rest'. 

Buda.... Bu'  da. 

Budweis... Bood'  wise. 

Buenaventura Bway  na  ven  loo  rn. 

Biiena  Vista Bwa' ua  Vees'  ta. 

BnenoB  Ay  res Bo'nos  Air'ez. 

Buffalo Buffalo. 

Bulgaria Bui  ga'  re  n. 

Bnignndy Bur' gun  dy. 

Bnrmah Bur' ma. 

Bnshire Bu  sheer'. 

Cabnl Cabool'. 

Cadiz Ca'diz. 

Caen Ca' en. 

Caermarthen Car  mar'  then. 

Caernarvon Car  nai'vou, 

Cagliari Cahl'  yar  e. 

Caicoa Ki'  cose. 

Cairo  (Egypt) Ki'ro, 

Cairo  (U.  S.) Ca'  ro. 

Calais Cal'is. 

Calcutta Cal  cut'  tfl. 

California Cal  e  for  ne  a. 

Callao Cal  lah'  o. 

Cantbray Cam' bray. 

Cambridge Came'  brij. 

(.'ampagna Cam.pahn'  ya. 

Campeachy Cam  pe'  che. 

Canandaigua Can  an  da'gwa. 

Canaries Can  a'  riz. 

Canaveral Can  yav'  e  ral. 

C.iiKlia Can'di  a. 

CuHon Can'  you. 

Canterbury Can' ler  ber  e. 

Canton  (l/.  S.) Can' ton. 

Canton  (<.'hina) — Can  ton'. 
Cape  Girardeau. .  .Cape  (Jir  nr  do'. 

Capricorn Cap'  re  corn. 

Ciiracas Ca  rali'  as. 

Cardiff Car' diff. 

Caribbean. Car  ib  bee'  no. 


C.-iribbep Car  e  bee'. 

Carlisle Car  lile'. 

Curler uhe Carlz'  roo. 

Carolina Car  o  li'na. 

Carpathian Car  pa' the  au 

Cartagena Car  ta  je'iia. 

Cashmere Cash  mere'. 

Caspian Cas'  pi  an. 

Castile Cas  leel'. 

Calasanqua Cat  a  saw' qua. 

Catoche Cab  to'  chay. 

Cattegat Cat'te  gat, 

Caucasian Caw  ca' .'-bun. 

Caucasus Caw'ca  sub. 

Cayenne Ki  en'. 

Cayman Ki  man'. 

Caynga Cayoo'ga. 

Celebes Cel'  e  beez. 

Ceram Se  rahm'. 

Cerigo Cer'  e  go. 

Cettigne Chet  teen'  yay. 

C^venues Say  ven'. 

Ceylon Ce'loue'. 

Cha<?res Chah'  gres. 

Chaleur Sha  i'ynre'. 

Chalons Sha  lOng'. 

Chainplain Sham  plane'. 

Champaign Sham  j)ane'. 

Chandeleur Shan  oe  I'yure'. 

Chartres Shar' t'r. 

Chatauqua Sha  taw' qua. 

Chattahoocliee Cln\t  ta  hoo'chee- 

Chattanooga Chat  ta  noo'gju 

Chaudiere Sho  de  air'. 

Chiapas Che  ah' pa. 

Chelsea Cliel'se. 

Cheltenham Clielt'  nam. 

Chemnitz Kem'  nits. 

Chemung She  mung'. 

Cheuaniro Slie  nang'go. 

Cherbourt; Slier'  boorg. 

Chesapeake dies' a  peak. 

Cheviot Chev'eot. 

Cheyenne Shi  en'. 

Chicago She  caw' go. 

Chichester Chicb'  es  ter. 

Chicopee Chic'o  pee. 

Cliihuahua Che  wah' wah. 

Chili Che'le. 

Chillicothe Chil  le  coth'e. 

Chiloe Che  lo  a'. 

Chimborazo Chim  bi>  rah'zo. 

Chincha Chin'  cha. 

Chippewa Chip' pe  way. 

Ch()wan Cho  wawn'. 

Christiania Chris  te  ah'ne  n. 

Cienfuegos Se  en  fway'goce. 

Cimarron Cim  ar  rone'. 

Cincinnati Cin  cin  nah'  te. 

Ciudad  Keal The  oo  dalid'  Ray 

a  hi'. 

Cleveland Cleev'  land. 

Coatzacoalcos Co  nht  sab  co  ahl'- 

cose. 

Cobija Cobe'ha. 

Coblenlz Cob'  lents. 

Cochabamba Coch  a  bam'ba. 

Cohoes Co  hoze'. 

Coimbra Co  im'  bra. 

Colchester Cole'  ches  ter. 

Cologne Co  lon«'. 


PRONOUNCIIjfG   VOCABULARY. 


127 


Colombia Co  lorn'  be  a. 

Colorado Col  o  rah'  do. 

Comnyiij^ua Co  mi  ah'  gwu. 

Oomoriii Com'  o  riu, 

Coucepciun Coii  sep  be  one'. 

Conemaugh Cou'  e  maw. 

Congaree Coug  ga  ree'. 

Congo CoDg'  go. 

Comiair^xht Coii'nawt. 

Connecticut Cou  uet'e  cnt. 

Couseguina Cou  sa  giie'  ua. 

Coustautine Cou  stan  teeu'. 

Constantinople. .. .Cou  stan  te  uo'p*I. 

Coomnssie Coo  mas'se. 

Copenhageu Co  pen  ha'  gen. 

Copiapo Co  pe  ah'  po. 

Coqnimbo Co  keem'bo. 

Cordova Cor'  do  va. 

Corea Co  re'  a. 

Corfu Cor  foo'. 

Coriuth Cor'  inth. 

Corpus  Christl Cor'pua  Kris' te. 

Corrientes Cor  re  en'  tes. 

Corsica Cor'ee  ka. 

Corvallis Corval'lis. 

Costa  KIca Cos'  ta  Re'  ka. 

Cotopaxi Co  to  pax'  e. 

Coventry Cuv'eu  try. 

Covington Cuv'ing  ton. 

Cozumel ,. ,.Co  zoo  uiel'. 

Craciiw Cra'  co. 

Crimea Cri  me' a. 

Croatia Cro  a' she  a. 

Croustadt Crou'stat. 

Cneufa Kweu'  ea. 

Cumana Coo  ma  uah'. 

C  ti  raf  oa Coo  ra  so'. 

Cuyahoga Ki  a  hc/ga. 

Cuzco Coo// CO. 

Cyclades Cyc  ladeez, 

Cyprus Ci'  prus. 

Czar Zar. 

Dahlonega Dah  lon'e  ga. 

Dahomey Dah  ho'  may. 

Dai  Nippon Di  Nip' pone. 

Dakota ^  Dah  ktV  la. 

Dulhousie Dal  hoo'ze. 

Dalles Dalz. 

Dalmatia Dal  ma'  she  a. 

Damietla Dam  e  et'  ta. 

Dampier  Laud Dam'  peer  Land. 

Danhnry Dan' her  re. 

Danish Da'nish. 

Dantzic Dant'sik. 

Dauube Dan'youb. 

Dardanelles Dar  da  uelz'. 

DarFiir Dar  foor'. 

Darien Da'  re  en. 

Darmstadt Daiui'  stat. 

Dartmouth Dart'  muth. 

Daiwin Dar'  win. 

Dauphiny Daw'rtn  e. 

Davenport Uav'  en  port. 

Dayton Da'  ton. 

Deccan Dec'  can. 

Delaware Del' a  ware. 

Delhi  (Asia) Del' le. 

Delhi  (U.S.) Del' hi. 

Demerara Dem  e  rah'  ra, 

Denmarls Den'  mark. 

De^eret Dez  e  ret'. 

Des  Moines De  Moin', 

Detroit De  troit'. 

Diamantina . . .  De  a  mahu  te'  na. 

Dieppe De  ep'. 

Dijon De  zhung. 

Dnieper Ne'per. 

Dniester Nees'  ter. 

Dominica Horn  ^  ne'ca. 

Dimegal Don'e  gawl. 

Dorchester Dor'  ches  ter. 

Douay I)oo'  ay. 

Douglas Dug'  las. 

Donro Doo'ro. 

Dovrefleld Dov  re  feeld'. 

Dowaglac Uo  wa' je  ac. 

Drave Draliv. 

Dresden Diez'  den. 

Drogheda Drog'e  da. 

Drontheim  Fiord.  .Dron'  teem  Fe  ord. 

Dubuque Du  book'. 

Duluih Dt>olooth'. 

DuMibartou Dum  bar' ton. 

Dumfries Dnni  frees'. 

Duna Doo'na. 

Dtiudee Dun  dee'. 

Dnnedin.,.. Dn  ned' in. 

Dunkirk Dun  kirk'. 

Dunmore Dun  more'. 

Dnquesne Du  kane'. 

Du  Quoin Du  Kwoin'. 

Durham Dur' urn. 

Dns^^eldorf Dn?*'  sel  dorf. 

Dwina Dwi'ua. 

Eau  Claire O  clalr'. 

Ebro E'  bro. 

Eenador Kc  wadore'. 

Edinburgh Ed'  In  bnr  ro. 

Edisto Kd'  is  to. 

Ei-'ypt E'jipt. 

Ehrenbreitsteiu  ...A  ren  brite'stine. 

Elder I' der. 

Eisenach I'  ze  nahk. 

Elbe    Elb. 

Elberfeld FJ'  ber  feld. 

EHuirz K!  bootz'. 

E'euthera K  I'voo'  the  ra. 

El  Paso EI  f'ah'so. 

Elsinore EI  se  nore'. 

Ems Emz. 

England lug' gland. 

English Ing'glish. 


Enikale En  e  kah'  lay. 

Equator E  qua' tor. 

Erfurt Er'  foort. 

Erie E're. 

Erz Erts. 

Erzroom Krts  room'. 

Escurial Es  coo  re  ahl'. 

Esmeralda Es  mer  ahl'  da. 

Espinhafo Es  pin  yas'  o. 

Esquimaux Es' ke  mo. 

Estremadura Es  tre  ma  du'  ra. 

Eubea Yoo  be'  a. 

Eufaula Yoo  fa w'  la.   - 

Enphrates Yoofra' teez. 

Eureka Y'oo  re'ka, 

Europe Yoo'  rup. 

European Yoo  ro  pe'an, 

Eutaw Yoo' taw. 

Everest Ev'er  est. 

Eylau I' law. 

Eyre Air. 

Fahlrtn Fah'  loon. 

Falkirk Fal'kirk. 

Falkland Fawk'  land. 

Falmouth Fal '  muth. 

Faribault Fare  bo'. 

Faroe Fah'ro. 

Fayal FT  awl'. 

Fayetteville Fay'et  vil. 

Feejee Fe'jee. 

Feliciana Fe  le  ce  ah'na. 

Fernandiua Fer  nan  de'  ua. 

Ferrara Fer  rah'  ra. 

Ferrol Fer  role'. 

Fezzau Fez  zau'. 

Fingal Fing  gawl'. 

Finisterrc Fin  is  tare'. 

Fiord Fe  ord'. 

Flanders Flau'derz. 

Florence Flor'  euce. 

Florida Flor'  e  da. 

Foix Fwah. 

Foud.  du  Lac Fond  dn  Lac'. 

Foulainebleau Fon  tane  bio'. 

Foulenoy F(m  te  noi'. 

Formosa Ftu-  mo'sa. 

Fiu't  Yuma F<»rt  Yoo' ma. 

Frankfort Frank'  fort. 

Frederickshall  ..  ..Fred'  er  Iks  hawl. 

Frederickton Fred'er  ik  tou. 

Fremont Fie'  mont. 

Freiburg Pri'  burg. 

Friedlaud Freed'  laud. 

Friesland Frees'  laud. 

Frio Fre'o. 

Froblsiier Frol/ish  er. 

Fuh-chau Fn  chow'. 

Fujiyama Fu  je  yah'  ma, 

fJiieta Gah  a'ta. 

Galapagos Ga  lap'  a  gose. 

Galatz Ga  hus'. 

Galicia Ga  lish'e  a, 

Gallinas Gal  le' nas. 

Gallipoli Gal  lip'o  le. 

Gallipolis Gal  li  po  lees', 

Galveston Gal'ves  tou. 

Galway GawJ'  way. 

Gauges Gau'jeez. 

Garonne Ga  ron'. 

Geelong Zhee  long'. 

Genesee Gen  e  see'. 

Geneseo Gen  e  se'o. 

Geneva Ge  ne'  va. 

Genoa Gen'  o  a. 

Georgia.... : Jor' je  a. 

Geyser Ghi'  ser. 

Ghauts Gawts. 

Ghent Ghent. 

Gibraltar Gib  rawl'tar. 

Gila He' la. 

Gilead ...Ghil'e  ad. 

Gilolo Ghelo'lo. 

Girardeau Gir  ar  do'. 

GIronde Zhe  nuide'. 

Glacier Glas'e  er. 

Glasgow Gtas'go. 

Gleumore Glen  m»u-e'. 

Gloucester Glos'ter. 

Gobi Go' be. 

Goderlch God'  rich. 

Gondokoro Gou  do  ko'ro, 

Gonzales Gon  zah'Ies. 

Goshen Go'shen. 

Gotha Go' lab. 

Gothland Goth'  laud. 

Gottenburg Got' ten  boorg. 

Gutliugeu Get'  ting  en. 

Graclas  a  Dios Grah'ceahsahDe'- 

ose. 

Granada Gra  nah'da. 

Graveilnes Grahv  leen'. 

Greenock Gree'  nock, 

Greenwich Grin'ij. 

Grenada Gre  nah'da. 

Griqua Grik' wa. 

Groningen Gron'ing  en. 

Gnadalaxara Gwah  da  la  hah' ra. 

Guadalupe Gaw  da  loop'. 

Guadalquivir Gwaw  dal  quiv'ir. 

Guadiana Gwah  de  ah'na. 

Gunnahani Gwah  na  hah'ue. 

Guanaxuato Gwah  na  hwah'  to. 

Gnardafni Gwar  da  fwe'. 

Guatemala Gwah  te  mah'  In. 

Guayama Gwiah'ma, 

Guayaquil Gwi  a  keel'. 

Guaymas Gwi'  mas. 

Guernsey Ghern'  ze. 

Guiana Obe  ah'na. 

Guinea Ghin'ne. 

Haarlem Har'  lem. 


Hague Hfig. 

Hainan Hi  nan'. 

Halle Halle. 

Hamburg Ham'  burg. 

Hammerfest Ham'  mer  fest. 

Han-chau Han  chow', 

Hanuibal Han'e  bal. 

Hanover Han'o  ver. 

Harfleur Har  fl'yure'. 

Harrisbnrg Har'  ris  burg. 

Harz Harts. 

Hatteras Hat' le  ras, 

Havana Ha  van' a. 

Haverhill Ha' ver  il. 

Havre Hah'  v'r. 

Havre  de  Grace  .  ..Hab'v'rdeGrahce'. 

Hawaii Ha  wi'e. 

Hayli Ha' te. 

Hebrides Heb'  re  deez. 

Hecla Hec'  la. 

Hedjas Hed  jaz'. 

Heidelberg HI'  del  berg. 

Helena He  le'ua. 

Heligoland Hel'e  go  laud. 

Helsingfors Hel'sing  forz. 

Helvoetshiys Hel' vet  slooee. 

Heulopen Hen  lo'peu. 

Herat He  rat'. 

Hereford Her'  e  ford. 

Herzegovina Hert  se  go'  ve  ua. 

Hesse Hess. 

Himalaya Flim  a  li'  a. 

Hindoo-koQsh Hin'doo  koosh, 

Hindostau llin  dos  tan'. 

Hoang  Ho Ho  ang  Ho', 

Hoboken Ho  bo' ken. 

Hodeida Ho  di'  da, 

Hogue Hog. 

Hoheuliudeu. Ho  hen  lin'den. 

HobenzoUern Ho  hen  tsol'  lern. 

Honduras Hon  doo'  ras. 

Hong  Kong Hong  Kong'. 

Honolulu Hon  o  loo' loo. 

Hoosac  (Tunnel)  .  .Hoo'  sac. 
Hoosic  (Uiver)  ..  ..Hoo' sic. 

Horicon Hor'e  con. 

Houghton Hc»' ton. 

Houltou Hole'  ton. 

Housatonic IIoo  sa  tou'ic 

Houstou Hr.'ston. 

Hue Hoo  a'. 

Humboldt Hum' bolt. 

Hungary Hung'  ga  re. 

Huron Hu'rtui. 

Hyderabad Hi  der  a  bad'. 

Idaho I' da  ho. 

Illinois II  li  noi', 

Ilnieu II  men'. 

Inagua E  nab'gwa. 

India In'de  a. 

Indian In'de  an. 

Indiana In  de  au'a. 

Indianapolis In  de  an  ap'o  lis. 

Indies In'dlz. 

Ingolstadt lug'gol  stat. 

Innspruck Ins'  prooU, 

Interlacheu In  ter  lab'  ken, 

luverary In  ve  ra'  re. 

Inverness In  ver  ness', 

Iowa r  o  wa. 

Ipswich Ips'  wich, 

Iran E  rahu'. 

Ireland Ire'  laud. 

Irkoutsk Ir  kootsk', 

Irontou I'nm  ton. 

Iroquois t  ro  kwoi'. 

Irtish Ir'  lisli. 

Iser E'zer. 

Islay  (Scotland)...!' lay. 

Islay  (S.A.) Iz  li\ 

Ismail Is  mah  eel'. 

Ismailia Is  mah  eel'ya. 

Ispahan Is  pa  han'. 

Isthmus .' Ist'mus, 

Itasca I  tas'ca. 

Ithaca Iih'a  ca. 

Ivry E' vry. 

Jaen Hah  en'. 

Jalapa , Ha  lab' pa. 

Jamaica Ja  ma'ca. 

Japan Ja  pan'. 

Jassy Yas'  sy, 

Java Jah'va. 

Jedburgh Jed' bur  o. 

Jena Ya'  ua. 

Jersey Jer'ze. 

Jerusalem Je  roo'  sa  lem. 

Jesso Yes'  so. 

Jiddah JId' da. 

Joannes Zho  ah'neez. 

Johannisburg Yo  bahu'is  berg. 

Jollet Jo'  le  et. 

Juau  Fernandez...  Joo'anFernau'dez, 

Juha Zhoo'  ba. 

Jnngfrau Yoong'  frow. 

Juniata Ju  ne  at' a. 

Jura Joo'  ra. 

Kalahari Kah  la  hah'ro. 

Kalamazoo Kal  a  nia  zoii'. 

Kamicbaika Kam  tcliat'  ka. 

Kanawha Ka  naw'  wa. 

Kankakee Kan  kaw'  ke. 

Kano Kah  no 


Kansas.. 
Kara  Korum  . 

Karroo 

i  Kashgar  

Kaskaskia  . 


.Kan' zap. 
. .  .Kah  rah  Ko'rnm. 
. . .  Kar  ro(»', 
. .  .Kash  gar'. 

.Kas  kas'  ke  a. 


Katahdiu Ka  lah'diu. 

Kearney Kar'ne. 

Kearsargc Keer'sarj. 


Kelat Kelat'. 

Kennebec Ken  ue  bee'. 

Keuuebunk Ken  ue  bunk'. 

Kenosha Ken  o'  sha. 

Kentucky Ken  luck'y, 

Keokuk Ke'o  kuk. 

Kewaunee Ke  waw'  nee. 

Kewaydiu Ke  wa'Uiu. 

Khan Kawn. 

Khanate Kawn' ate. 

Kharloom Kar  loom'. 

Khedive Ka  deev' 

Khiva. Ke'  va. 

Khorassan Ko  ras  san', 

Kidderminster  ..  ..Kid'  der  min  ster. 

Kiel Keel. 

Kiev Ke  ev'. 

Klldare Kll  dair'. 

Killma  Njaro Kll  e  niahn  jahro', 

Kilkenny Kll  ken'ny. 

Klllarney Kll  lar' ney. 

Kin<;kitao King  ke  tah'o, 

Ktolen Keer'len. 

Kioto Ke  o'to. 

Kishenev Kish  en  ev'. 

Kissiugeu Kiss'  ing  eu. 

Kittanuiug Kit  lan'ning. 

Kittatinny Kit  la  tin'uy. 

Killery Kit' ter  y. 

Kiushiu Koo'  shoo. 

Klamath Klah'mat. 

Kodiac Ko'de  abk. 

KokoTuo Ko'  ko  mo. 

Kiiuigsberg Ka'  nigs  berg. 

Konlggraiz Ka'nig  grels. 

Kuen  Lun~. Kweu  Loon'. 

Kurdistan Koor  dis  tau'. 

Kurile Koo'  reel. 

Labrador Lab  ra  dore', 

Laccadive Lac'  ca  dTv. 

Lackawanna Lack  a  waw'  na. 

La  Crosse Lnh  Cross'. 

Ladoga La  do'ga. 

Ladrone La  drone'. 

La  Fayette Lab  Fay  et'. 

Lagoon La  goon'. 

Lagos Lab' g()se. 

La  Guayra Lah  Gwi'  ra. 

La  Hogne La  H'jg'. 

Lamn^ermoor Lam  mer  moor', 

Lanark Lau'  ark. 

Lancaster Lane' as  ter. 

Landau Lau  daw'. 

Lauguedoc Lahu  ghe  dok', 

Lansing ..Lau 'sing. 

Laos  . .'. Lah'  OS. 

La  Paz Lah  Pahz'. 

Lapeer La  peer'. 

La  Plata Lah  Plah' ta. 

Laramie Lrir'  a  me. 

Laredo La  ra'do. 

La  Rochelle Lah  Ro  sbel'. 

La  Salle Lah  Sabl'. 

Lassa Lahs'  sa. 

Lausanne Lo  zan'. 

X^eaven worth Lev'  en  worth. 

Leghorn Leg  horn'. 

Lehigh Le'  high. 

Leicester Les' ter. 

Leinster Lin' ster. 

Leipsic Lipe'  sic. 

Leilh Leeth. 

Lemberg Lem'  berg. 

Lena Le'na. 

Leon I.e'on. 

Levant Le  vaut'. 

Lewes Lr/is. 

Leyden Li'd'n. 

Libyan Lib'  e  an. 

Liege Leezh. 

Lilie Leel. 

Lima Lee'  ma. 

Limburg Lim'  burg. 

Limerick Lim'  er  ick. 

Limoges Lim  ozh'. 

Li  pari Lip' a  re. 

LIppe LIp'pe. 

Lisbon Liz'bou. 

Liu  Kiu Le  oo  Kc  oo. 

Llano  Estacado  ...L'vah'noEstakah'- 
do. 

Llanos L'yah'nr.s. 

Loango Lo  ang' go, 

Lobos Lo'  bfise. 

Loch  Leven. Lok  Lev'  en. 

Loch  Lonioud Lok  Lo' mond. 

Lodi Lo'  de. 

Lofoden Lo  fo'  den. 

Loire Lwar. 

Liimbaidy Lom'  bar  dy. 

Lomond Lo'  mond. 

London Lun'  don. 

Lop  Nor Lop'  Nor. 

Lorraine Loi-  rain'. 

Los  Angeles Los  An'jc  les.    ' 

Los  Roqnes Los  Ko'  kes. 

Lough  Erne Lok  Ern'. 

Lonlsburg.  Loo'  is  berg. 

LfUiisiana Loo  ee  ze  ah'  na. 

Ltuilsville Loo' is  vil. 

Lowell Lo'el. 

Lnbeck Loo'  beck. 

Lucerne Loo  sern'. 

Lncknow Luck' no. 

Lutzeu Loot'  zen. 

Luxemburg Lux'  em  burg. 

Luzerne L<)o  zerne', 

Luzon Loo  z<m'. 

Lyconung Ly  com'  ing. 

Lyons Li'  onz. 

Macassar Ma  caft'par 

Machias Ma  chi'as, ' 


Mackenzie Mac  ken'ze. 

Mackiuaw Mack  e  naw'. 

Macon Ma' con. 

Madeira.. Ma  de'ra. 

Madras Ma  dras'. 

Madrid Ma  dreed'. 

Maelstrom Mayl'  strum. 

Magdalena Mag  da  le'  na. 

Magdeburg Mag'  de  burg. 

Maimatchin Mi  ma  cheeu', 

Malabar Mai  a  bar'. 

Malacca Ma  lac'  ca. 

Malaga Mai' a  ga. 

Malay Ma  lay'. 

Malaya Ma  la'ya. 

Malaysia Ma  la' she  n. 

Maiden Mawl'deu. 

Malta Mawl'la. 

Managua Ma  nab'  gwa. 

Manayunk Man  a  yunk'. 

Manhattan Man  hat'  tan. 

Manila Mah  ue' la, 

Manistee Ma  nie'  te. 

Manitoba Man  e  to  bah', 

Manitoulin Maii  e  too'  lin. 

Manitowoc Man  e  to  woe'. 

Mantchooria Man  Iclioo'  re  a, 

Manina Man'  lu  a. 

Maracaybo Ma  ra  ki'bo. 

Maranham Ma  ran  ham', 

Marengo Ma  ren' go. 

Margarita Mar  ga  re' ta. 

Maruui Mar'e  on. 

M  ariposa Mah  re  po'  za. 

Marmora Mar'  mo  ra. 

Marquette Mar  ket'. 

Martinique Mar  tin  eek'. 

Marseilles Mar  sailz'. 

Mascarene Mas  ca  lene'. 

MassiUon Mas'  sil  lou. 

Matapan Mat  a  pan'. 

Mattawamkeag Mat  ta  worn'  keg. 

Maito  Grosso Maht'  to  Gros'eo. 

Mauch  Chunk Mawk  Chunk'. 

Maumee Maw  mee'. 

Mauna  Loa Mow'  na  Lo'  a. 

Mauritius ...Maw  rish'e  us. 

Mayence Mah  yahnce'. 

Mazatlau Maz  at  Ian'. 

Medina Me  de'  na. 

Mediterranean Med  e  ter  ra'  ue  an, 

Melanesia Mel  a  ne'she  a. 

Melbourne Mel'  burn. 

Memphremagog. .  .Mem  fre  ma'  gog. 

Menai Men'  i. 

Mendocino Men  do  se'  no. 

Mendoza Men  do'  za, 

Mequinez Mek'e  nez. 

Metida Mer'  e  da. 

Merthyr  Tydvil Mer' thyr  Tyd'vii. 

Messina Mes  se'na. 

Meuse Maze. 

Miami. Mi  aui'e. 

Michigan Mish'  e  gan. 

Michilimackiuac...Mich  e  le  mack' e- 
nac. 

Mikado Me  kah' do. 

Ionian Mil' an. 

Milwaukee Mil  waw'  ke. 

Mindanao MIn  da  nab'o. 

Mindort) Min  do'  ro. 

Miquelon Mik  e  Ion'. 

Miramichi Mir  a  me  she'. 

Missisquoi Mis  sis'  kwoi. 

Missolinigbi Mis  go  long' ghe. 

Missouri Mis  son'  re. 

Mitylene Mil  e  le'  ne. 

Mobile Mo  heel'. 

Mocha Alo'  ka. 

Mogadfue Mog  a  dore'. 

Moluccas Mo  luc'caz. 

Mongol Mon'gol. 

Monongahela Mo  non  ga  he'la.  '• 

Montana Mon  lali'na. 

Montauk Mtui  lawk'. 

Montenegro Mou  te  na'gro. 

Monterey Mon  te  ray  . 

Montevideo Mon  te  vid'  e  o. 

Monin)orenci. .Mont  mo  ren'  se. 

Mont[ielier Mont  peel' ver. 

Montreal Mont  re  awi'. 

Morea Mo  re'  a. 

Moscow Mos'  CO, 

Mosel Mo  zel'. 

Mount  Desert Mount  Dez'ert. 

Mourzonk Moor  zook'. 

Mozambique Mo  zam  beek'. 

Munich Mti'  nik. 

Muscat Mils  cat'. 

Muskingum Mas  king'gnm, 

M  ysore My  sore  . 

Nacogdoches Nac  og  do'  chez, 

Naliaut Na  hant'. 

Namur Na'  mur. 

Nankin Nau  keen'. 

Nanllug Nahn  ling'. 

Nantes Nants. 

Naples Na'pl'z. 

Nashua Nasb'  u  a. 

Nassau Nas' saw. 

Natal Na'tal. 

Natchez Natch' ez. 

Natchitoche« Natch  e  toch'ez. 

Navarino. Nav  a  re' no. 

Neagh .  .Na. 

Nedjcd Nej'ed. 

Netise N'yuse. 

Nevada Na"y  vah'da. 

Newark New'  ark. 

New  Berne New' Bern. 

New  Britain New  Brit't'n. 

Newburgb New'bu'g. 

Newbnryporl New' ber  le  port. 


128 


PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY. 


Newfoundland New'  fund  land. 

New  Granada New  Gia  uah'da. 

New  Guinea New  Ghin'ne. 

New  Orleans New  Or'le  niisi. 

New  Rochelltr New  Uo  shell'. 

New  Zealand New  Ze'laiid. 

Nganii N'guli'  jne. 

Niagara N  i  ay '  a  ra. 

Nicaragna. Nic  a  rah'gwa. 

"Nice Neece. 

Nicobar Nic  o  bar', 

Kiemen Ne'meu. 

Niger Ni'  jer. 

Nineveh Niii'e  veh. 

Niobrara Ni  o  bra' ra. 

Nipissing Nip' is  sing. 

Nippon Nip  pone'. 

Nismes Neemz. 

Norfolk Nor'fok. 

Norrkopiug Nor'  ko  ping. 

Norwalk Nor'  vnAt. 

Norwicii Nor'rij. 

Notre  Dame No'  I'r  Dalim'. 

Nova  Scotia Nc»'  va  Soo'  she  a. 

Nova  Zembla No'  va  Zem'  bla. 

Novgorod Nov  <fo  rod'. 

Nyanza N'yahn'za, 

NyaBsa N  'yuhs'  sa. 

Oahu Wah'hoo. 

Oasis O'a  sie. 

Oaxaca Wah  hah'ka. 

Obi O'be. 

Oceanica :  O  siie  an'  e  ca, 

Ocniiilgee Oc  mul'ghee. 

Oconee O  co'  nee. 

Oder O'der. 

Odessa O  des'sa. 

Oi^eechee O  j^hee'  chee. 

Oise Wahz. 

Okeechobee O  kee  cho'bee. 

Okhotsk Ok  hotsk'. 

Olinutz Ol'muts. 

Omaha O'nia  haw. 

Oneida O  ni'  da. 

Onondaga On  on  daw'ga. 

On  lario On  ta'  re  o, 

Opelika O  pel'e  ka. 

Opelousas Op  e  loo' sua. 

Oporto O  por'  to. 

Oran O  rahn'. 

Oreg4)u Or'e  gon. 

Orinoco O  re  uo'co. 

Orizaba Or  e  zah'  ba. 

Orkneys Ork'niz. 

Orleans Or'le  auz. 

Ormuz Or' muz. 

Ortegal Or'  te  gaUl. 

Of'iige O  siige  . 

Osbkosh Osh'  kosh. 

OsnaUurg Oz'  na  burg. 

Osf^awattomie Os  sa  wot'  o  me. 

Osteud Os  tend'. 

Oswego Os  we'  go. 

Otaheite O'  ta  hite. 

Otranto O  tran'  to. 

Ottawa Of  ta  wa w. 

Ortumwa Ot'  turn  waw. 

Oude God. 

Oiise Ooz. 

Owasco O  was' CO. 

Ozaka O'  zah  ca. 

Ozark O  zark'. 

Pacarainia Pah  cah  rahe'niah. 

pacha Pa  shaw'. 

Padang Pa  dang'. 

Padna Pad'  u  a. 

l*aisU'y Paze'  ley. 

Piileriiio Pa  ler'nio. 

Palestine. Pal'es  tine. 

PalniLM'ston Pahm'er  ston. 

'  Palo  Alto Pah'  lo  Al'  to. 

Palos Pah'bis. 

Pamlico Pain'  le  co. 

Pampas Pam'  paz. 

Panama Pan  a  mah', 

Papua Pap'  n  a. 

Para Pa  rah'. 

Paraguay Pahr  a  gway'. 

Pnrahyba Pahr  ah  e'  bah. 

Paramaribo Par  a  ma  re'  bo. 

Parana Pahr  a  nab'. 

Passaic Pas  sa'  ic  . 

Passamaquoddy.-.Passa  ma  qnod'dy. 

Patagonia Pat  a  go'  ne  a. 

Patos Pah'  n»se. 

Patras Pa  Iras'. 

Pecos Pa'  kose. 


Pedee Pe  dee'. 

Peipus.. Pa'e  pus. 

Pekin Pe  kin'. 

Pelin^ Pa  ling'. 

Pembina Pern' be  na. 

Pemigewasset Pem  e  je  wos'sit. 

Pensacola Pen  su  co'  la. 

Pepin Pep' in, 

Pernambuco Per  nam  boo'co. 

Persia Per'  she  a. 

Pesth Pest. 

Philippi Phe  lip'  pi. 

Philippine Phe  lip' pin. 

Picardy Pic'ar  de. 

Pictou Pic  loi)'. 

Piedmont Peed'  ni<Hit, 

Pietermaritzburg. .  Pee  lermar'itz burg. 

Piqiia Pik'  wa. 

Pisa Pee'za. 

Piscatiiqua I^is  cat'  a  kwa. 

Pitcairn Pit  kairn'. 

Plaquemiiie Plak  meeu'. 

Plaieau Pla  to'. 

Phiue Plat. 

Plymouth PMm'uth. 

Poitiers Poi  leerz'. 

Polynesia Pol  e  ne'shc  a. 

Pompeii P(mi  pa'e. 

Pontcliartrain Pont  shar  train'. 

i*opayan Po  pa  yan'. 

Popocatepetl Pop  o  cah'  te  pet'l. 

Port  au  Prince Port  o  Prince'. 

Pi)rte P.'rt. 

Porto  Rico Por'  to  Be'  ko. 

Porto  Vecchio Pen-'  to  Vek'  ke  o. 

Portugal Por'  tu  gal. 

Posen Po'  zen. 

Potomac Po  to'  mac. 

Potosi Po  t(/  se. 

Poughkeepsie Po  kip'  se. 

Poyang Po  yang'. 

Prague Praig. 

Prairie  dn  ChieiK.Pra're  dn  Sheen  . 

Presqne  Isle Presk  Eel'. 

Prussia Prush'ya. 

Puebla Pwa'bla. 

Puerto  Principe. . .Pware'to Preeu'ee- 

PyrenecB Pir'en  eez. 

Quatre  Bras Kaht'r  Brah'. 

Quebec Kwe  bee'. 

Queulun Kwen  loon'. 

Queretaro Kay  ray  tah'  ro. 

Qniloa (Ke'  lo  a. 

Quincy Kwin'  ze. 

Quiuebaug Kwin  e  bawg'. 

Quito Ke'  to. 

Bacine Ba  seen'. 

Bagusa Uah  goo'  sah. 

Bahway Raw'  way. 

Rainier Ra'  neer. 

Baisin Ra'zin. 

Raleigh '.  .Raw'  le. 

Bangoon Rang  goon'. 

Bapidan Itap  id  an'. 

Bappahannock. . . .  R:ip  pa  ban' nock. 

Raritan Rar'  it  an. 

Batisbon Rat'  is  bon. 

Ravenna Ra  ven'  na. 

Beading Red'ing. 

lieims Reemz. 

Renssebier Ren  sel  er. 

ResacadelaPalma.Rjiy  sah' ca  dny  la 
Pahl'ma. 

Bestij^oncbe Res  te  goo  sha'. 

Beykjavik Rike'ya  vik. 

Rhone R«">n. 

Riad Re  ad'. 

Richelieu Jleesh'e  lu. 

Riet:en Re'  zen. 

Riesen  Gebirge. . .  .Re' zen  Gebere'ge. 

Riga Re'  ga. 

Rio  de  la  Plata..  ..Re'o  day  la  Plah'ta. 

Rio  Grande Ke' o  Grahn'day. 

Rio  Janeiro Tie'  o  Ja  nay'  ro'. 

Roanoke Ro  an  oke'. 

Romagna Ro  mahn'ya. 

Roncesvalles Ron  se  vahl'yes. 

Rosario Ro  sah'  re  o. 

Rotterdiim Rot'  ter  dam. 

Rouen Uoo'  en. 

Ronmania Roo  miih'  ne  a. 

Roumelia Roo  me'  le  a. 

Rouses  Point Rowse'  ez  Point. 

Rowan Ro'  an. 

Russia Rush' a. 

Ry'swick Biz'  wik. 


Saarbruck Sahr' brook. 

Sabinas Sah  be'  nas. 

Sabine Sa  been'. 

Sable Sa'b'l. 

Saco Saw'  co. 

Sacramento Sac  ra  men' to. 

Sadowa Sah'  do  wa. 

Saghalin Sag  ha  leen', 

Saginaw Sag'e  naw, 

Sagueuay Sag'  nay. 

Sahama Sa  hah'  ma. 

Sahara  .- Sa  hah'  ra. 

Said Sah  eed'. 

Saigon Si  gon'. 

Salamanca Sal  a  man'  ca. 

Salisbury Sawlz'ber  re. 

Salonica.. Sal  o  ne'ca. 

Samana Sa  mah'  na.     • 

Samarang Sam  ar  ang'. 

Samarcaud Sam  ar  cund'. 

Samoan Sa  mo'  an. 

San  Bernardino  . .  .San  Ber  uar  de'no. 

San  Diego San  De  a'  go. 

Sandusky San  dus'  ke. 

San  Felipe San  Fay  le'pay. 

Sangamon San'ga  mon. 

San  Joaquin San  Ho  a  keen'. 

San  Jose San  Ho  zay'. 

San  Juan San  Hoo  ahn'. 

Sun  Luis  Obispo.  ..San  Looees'Obis'- 

po. 
San  Luib  Potosi San  Loo  ees' Po  to  - 

se. 

San  Marino San  Ma  re' no. 

San  M  i tjuel San  Me  gbel'. 

San  Salvador San  Sal  va  d(n-e'. 

Santa  liarbara San'ta  Bar'ba  ra, 

Santa  Clara San'  ta  Clah'ra. 

Santa  Cruz San'  ta  Croose. 

Santa  Fe San'  ta  Fay'. 

Santee San  tee', 

Santiago San  te  ah' go. 

Santiago  de  Cuba. San  te  ah'  go  day 

Cn  ba. 

Saone Son. 

Siiragossa Sar  a  gos'ea. 

Saratov Sar  a  tov'. 

Sarawak Sabr  a  wahk'. 

Sarmiento Sar  me  en' to, 

Saskatchflwan Sas  katch'  a  wawn. 

Sault  St.  Marie Son  SeutMa're. 

Save Sahv. 

Scheldt Skelt. 

Schenectady .Ske  nee'  ta  de. 

Schoodic Shoo' die. 

Schroon Skroon. 

Schuylkill Skonl'kill. 

Schweidnitz SliwTt'nits. 

Schwerin Swa  reeu'. 

Scilly Sil'le. 

Scioto Si  o'  to. 

Sclaves Sklahvz. 

Scotia Sko'  she  a. 

Scutari Skoo'  ta  re. 

Seattle Se' t'l. 

Sebago Se  ba'  go. 

Sebastopol Se  bas'  to  pel. 

Sedan Se  dahn'. 

Seidlilz Sed'lits. 

Seine Sane. 

Senegal Sen'e  gawl. 

Senegambia  : Sen  e  gam' be  a 

Sennaar Sen  nahr'. 

Seoul Sa  ool'. 

Serro  Espiuhafo. ..Ser'   ro    Es    peen- 

yah'  so. 

Severn Sev'eru. 

Seville Sev'  il. 

Shanghai Shang  hi'. 

Shawangnuk Shong'gnm. 

Shenandoah Shen  an  do' a. 

Shikoku Shi  ko' koo. 

Siam Si  am'. 

Sicily Sis'e  le. 

Sierra  Leone Se  er'  ra  Le  o'  ne. 

Sierra  Madre Se  er'raMnh'drny. 

Sierra  Nevada Seer'raNe  vah'da. 

Sihon Se  hoon'. 

Silesia Si  le'se  a. 

Sinai Si'na  T. 

Sinaloa Sin  a  lo'  a. 

Sinope Sin'  o  pe. 

Singapore Sing  ga  pore'. 

Sioux Se  oo'. 

Skager  Rack Skag'  er  Rack. 

Skaneateles Skan  e  at'  e  les. 

Slavonia Sla  vo'  ne  a. 

Sleswitk  Holslein.S:es'wik  llu^^tine. 
Smolen^ik Sino  lensk'. 


Smyrna Smir'  na. 

Socotra So  co' tra. 

Sokoto Soko'  to. 

Somali So  maw'  le. 

Sonora So  no'ra. 

Sorata So  rah'  tah. 

Sorel Sor'  el. 

Soudan Soo  dan'. 

Spa Spall. 

Speyer Spi'  er. 

Spheroid Sphe'  roid. 

Sporades Spor'  a  deez. 

St.  Anthony Sent  An'  to  ny, 

Statea  Island Stat'n  I'land. 

St.  Augustine Sent  Aw  gus  teen'. 

St.  Croix Seut  Croi . 

Steihicoom Sti  la  coom'. 

St.  Elias Sent  E  li'  as. 

St.  Etienue Sent  Et  e  eu', 

Stettin Stet  teen'. 

St.  Genevieve Sent  Jen  e  veev'. 

St.  Helena Sent  He  le'na. 

St.  Lawrence Sent  Law'  rence. 

St.  Louis Sent  Loo' is. 

Jjt.  Pierre Sent  Pe  air', 

Stralt^uud Strahl' sooiid. 

Strasbourg Stras'  bourg. 

Stroniboli Strom' bo  le. 

St.  Roqne Sent  Roke'. 

Stuttgart Stoot'  gart. 

Suchau Soo' chow. 

Sucre Soo'  cray. 

Sumatra Su  mah  Ira. 

Sunda Sun'  da. 

Snra'.)aya Sri  ra  bi'  ah. 

Surat Sn  rat'. 

Surinam Sur  e  nam'. 

Suwanee Su  waw'iiee. 

Swansea Swawn'se. 

Syracuse Syr  a  case'. 

Tabriz Ta  breez'. 

Tahili Tahe'te. 

Tahlequah Tah'le  kwah. 

Talladega Tal  la  de'  ga. 

Tallahassee Tal  la  has'  see. 

Tamaqua Tarn  aw' kwa. 

Tamatave Tam'a  tahv. 

Tanipico Tam  pe'co. 

Tananarivo Tan  an  a  re  vo'. 

Tanganyika Tahn  gahn  ye'ka, 

Tangier Tan  jeer', 

Taos Tah'ose. 

Tapajos Ta  pah'  yose. 

Tashkend Tash  kend'. 

Tasmania Taz  ma'ne  a. 

Taunton Tahn' ton. 

Taur's Taw'  ris. 

Tchad Chad. 

Teheran Tee  he  rahn'. 

Tehuaiilepec Te  walin'  te  pec. 

Tegucigalpa Ta  goo  segahl'pa. 

Teiieriffe Teii'e  rif. 

Tene  Haute Ter' re  Hote. 

Tezcuco Tez  coo'co. 

Thames Temz. 

Thebes Theebz, 

Tllei!^s TTce. 

Tliermopylye Ther  mop'  e  le. 

Thian  Shan Te  ahn'  Shahn. 

Thibet Te  bet'. 

Thibodeanx Tib  o  do'. 

Tientsin Te  ent  seen'. 

Tiena  del  Fuego..Te  er'ra  del  Fwa'- 
go. 

Tiflis Tit"  lis. 

Tilsit Til' sit. 

Timbnctoo Tim  buc  too'. 

Tiniova Teer'  no  va. 

'J'iticaca Tit  e  cah'ca. 

Tiun'.en Te  u  men.'      \ 

Tobolsk Tobolt^k'. 

Tocantiua To  can  leenz'. 

Tokio To'.ke  o. 

Tonibigbee .Tom  big' bee. 

Tonqniu Ton  keen'. 

Topeka To  pe'ka. 

Torres ■. Tor' re-is. 

Tortnga Tor  too' ga. 

Toubni Too  long  . 

Toulouse Too  looz'. 

Tournay Toor  na'. 

Tours Toor, 

Trafalgar Traf  al  gar'. 

Transvaal Trahns  vahl'. 

Ti ebizond Tieb  e  zond'. 

Trieste Tre  est'. 

Trinidad Trin  e  dad'. 

Tripoli Trip'  u  le. 


Troyes .Trwah. 

Truxillo Troo  heel'yo. 

Tucson .To»i  son'. 

Tucnman Too  cn  man'. 

Tulare.": Toolah'rc. 

Turin Tu'  rin. 

Turkestan Toor  kes  tau', 

Tuscany Tus'  ca  ne. 

Tyrol Tirrole'.    ' 

Uintah .Win'  tab. 

Ulin Ooliii. 

Ulster Ul'ster. 

Umatilla Oo  ma  leel'  ya. 

Umbagog Um'ba  gog, 

Upernavik Oo'  per  uah  vik. 

Upsal Up' sal. 

Ural oo'ral. 

Urbana Ur  ba'  nn. 

Uruguay Yoo  roo  gway'. 

Utah Too' tah. 

Utica Yoo'te  ka. 

Utrecht Yoo'  trekt. 

Valladolid Val  la  do  Iced'. 

Vallejo Val  ya'ho. 

Valencia Va  len'sbe  a. 

Valparaiso Val  pa  ri'  zo. 

Vancouver Van  coo'  ver. 

Veuetia Ven  e'  she  a. 

Venezuela Ven  e  zwe'ia. 

Venice Ven'  ice. 

Vera  Cruz Va'ra  Kroos. 

Vergennes Ver  jenz'. 

Vermili(m Ver  mil' yon. 

Verona Ve  ro'  na. 

Versailles Ver  siilz'. 

Ver^uvius Vegoo've  U8. 

Viceroy Vice'roy,    , 

Vienna Ve  en'na. 

Vincennes Vin  cenz'. 

Vistula Vis'  tu  la, 

Vosges Vuzh. 

Wabash Waw'  bash. 

Wachusett Waw  cbu'sett. 

Wahabee Wah  hah'  be. 

Wahsatch Wah  satch'. 

Wallachia Wal  la'  ke  a. 

Walla  Walla Wol'  la  Wt.l'  la. 

Warsaw War'  saw. 

Warwick Wor'  ik. 

Washita Wosb'  e  law. 

Wateree Waw  ter  e'. 

Waterloo Waw  ter  loo'. 

Waukesha Waw'ke  shaw. 

Wener Wa'  ner. 

Weser We'zer. 

We8t|)lialia West  pha'  le  a. 

Wie.-^baden Wees  bah'  den. 

Wilkeabarre Wilks'  bar  re. 

WiUamette Wil  lam'et. 

Winnebago Win  ne  ba'  go. 

Winnipeg Wiii'ue  pe^. 

Winnipegoos Win  e  pe  goos'. 

Wiunipiseogee Win  ne  pe  suk'e. 

Winoua We  no'na. 

Winooski We  noos'  ke. 

Woonsocket Woon  sock'et. 

Worcester Woos'  tei. 

Wuriemberg V\'er'tem  berg. 

Wyandotte Wjr  an  dot'. 

Wyoming VVi  o'  ming, 

Yablonoi Ya  hlo  noi'. 

Yang  tse  Kiang . . .  Yang'  tse  Ke  ang'. 

Yarkaud Yar  kahnd'. 

Yazoo Ya  z<»o'. 

Yedo Yed'o. 

Yemen Yem'en. 

Yenisei Yen  e  sa'e. 

Yezi) Ya'  zo. 

Yokohama Yo  ko  hah' ma. 

Yosemite Yo  sem'e  te. 

Y<mghiogbeny Yob  ho  ga'  ne. 

Ypsilanti 1^)  se  Ian'  te. 

Yuba \oo'bab. 

Yucatan Yoo  ca  tan', 

Yukon Y'oo'kon. 

Zsicatecas Zac  a  ta'cas. 

Zambesi Zam  ba'zee. 

Zanguebar Zahng  ge  bar', 

Zante Zan'  te. 

Zanzibar Zan  ze  bar', 

Zealand Ze'land. 

Zurich Zoo'rik. 

Ziitphen Zoot'  fen. 

Zuvder  Zee Zi  der  Zee. 


GEOGRAPHY 


OF 


THE     PACIFIC     STATES. 


DESIGNED    TO    ACCOMPANY    HARPER'S    SCHOOL    GEOGRAPHY. 


WITH    MAPS    OF   THE    STATES    AND    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PREPARED   EXPRESSLY  FOR  THIS  WORK. 


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GEOGRAPHY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 


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GEOGRAPHY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 


in  the  coast  regions.  Sometimes  the  fall  is  nearly  twice  the  average. 
In  such  years,  though  considerable  damage  is  done  in  some  places  by 
floods,  the  total  agricultural  production  of  the  state  is  greatly  increased. 

Ill  summer  the  Return  Trade-winds,  descending  from  the  high  regions  of  the 
atmosphere,  strike  southern  and  central  California  as  southwest  winds.  They 
here  mix  with  the  hot  currents  ascending  from  the  broad  area  of  deserts  and 
plains,  their  capacity  for  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture  is  greatly  increased, 
and  they  can  give  no  rain.     California  has,  therefore,  a  very  dry  summer. 

In  winter  and  early  spring  the  northern  portions  of  the  same  broad  belt  of  winds 
have  moved  so  far  to  the  south  (see  pages  16  and  17)  as  to  strike  the  moun- 
tain chains  on  the  western  coast  of  Mexico.  These  great  ranges  change  the 
direction  of  the  winds,  force  them  through  the  long  Gulf  of  California  and 
along  the  Pacific  coast,  and  they  pass  over  the  state  as  southeast  winds. 
Though  these  winds  are  warm  and  moist,  the  winter  temperature  of  the  Colo- 
rado and  Moliave  deserts  is  not  low  enougli  to  cause  rain. 

Passing  farther  to  the  north,  the  winds  slide  up  tlie  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
and  the  Coast  Range,  and  considerable  rain  falls.  In  the  Tulare  region, 
partly  from  the  deposit  of  rain  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  and 
partly  from  the  less  elevation  and  higher  winter  temperature,  these  winds 
give  little  or  no  rain,  and  the  San  Joaquin  has  no  western  tributaries.  Still 
farther  to  the  north  the  winds  meet  with  a  lower  and  lower  temperature,  and 
discharge  an  enormous  amount  of  rain  or  snow.  For  these  reasons  there  is 
more  rain  in  the  north  than  in  the  south ;  more  on  the  mountain  slopes  and 
tops  than  on  the  plains  and  valleys ;  more  on  the  western  slopes  than  on  the 
eastern  ;  and  but  little  or  no  rain  in  the  deserts  and  sheltered  valleys,  where 
the  air  is  warmer  even  in  winter  than  the  rain-bearing  winds. 

A  land-wind,  noted  for  its  remarkable  dryness,  occasionally  sweeps  from  the 
north  to  the  south  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  Great  Valley.  Begin- 
ning as  a  polar  wind,  it  passes  over  the  Japan  Stream  in  the  north  Pacific, 
and  becomes  warm  and  moist.  When  it  strikes  the  mountainous  coasts  of 
Alaska,  British  Columbia,  and  Washington  Territory,  it  loses  most  of  its 
moisture.  It  then  passes  inland  and  southward  along  the  Cascade  Range, 
becoming  warmer  with  the  more  southern  latitude.  Though  its  capacity  for 
moisture  rapidly  increases,  it  finds  none  in  its  course.  Entering  the  head 
of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  it  soon  becomes  a  wind  of  exceeding  dryness,  and 
probably  terminates  in  the  Colorado  Desert.  It  occurs  in  the  spring  and 
fall,  and  usually  lasts  three  days.  In  seasons  of  little  rain-fall  it  produces 
disastrous  effects  by  abstracting  a  large  amount  of  moisture  from  the  soil. 

The  whole  coast  is  remarkable  for  its  equable  temperature.  Though 
the  daily  variations  of  temperature  are  considerable,  and  sometimes 
quite  sudden,  yet,  in  the  greater  part  of  the  coast  region,  the  average 
temperature  of  the  coldest  month,  January,  is  only  10°  lower  than  that 
of  the  hottest  month,  July.  The  average  temperature  for  the  year  at 
San  Diego  is  62°,  at  Humboldt  Bay  it  is  52°,  at  San  Francisco  56°,  at 
Sacramento  58°. 

The  chief  causes  of  the  mild  and  rainy  winters  of  California  and  Oregon  are, 
first,  the  broad  and  warm  waters  of  the  Japan  Stream,  which  flow  southward 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  coast ;  second,  the  Return  Trade-winds,  which 
sweep  landward  over  these  waters  and  carry  from  them  an  immense  amount 
of  water  which  is  deposited  as  rain  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  foot-hills  and 
mountain  slopes,  and  as  snow  on  the  Sierras ;  and,  third,  the  position  of  the 
great  mountain  systems  of  North  America,  which,  bending  round  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  Alaska,  protect  the  western  coast  from  the  cold  polar  winds,  and 
turn  them  to  sweep  unresisted  over  the  low  Central  Plain,  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

At  San  Francisco  the  average  temperature  for  January  is  49°,  for  July  it  is  ■'')7°, 
for  the  year  5G°.  During  nearly  the  whole  year,  but  especially  in  the  sum- 
mer months,  a  strong,  cool  ocean  wind  blows  from  the  northwest  through 
the  broad  gap  in  the  Coast  Range.  It  is  most  violent  in  the  afternoon.  It 
brings  in  from  the  sea  cold,  dense  fogs,  which  in  June,  July,  and  August  be- 
come heavy,  wet  mists.  It  is  this  wind  and  its  fogs  that  cause  the  remarka- 
bly low  and  even  summer  temperature.  South  of  Point  Arguello,  at  the  great 
bend  in  the  coast,  there  are  no  fogs,  and  the  climate  resembles  that  of  Italy. 

The  cause  of  the  wind  and  the  fog  is  twofold.  Close  along  the  coast  flows  a  cold 
deep-sea  current,  the  temperature  of  the  sea-water  at  the  Farallones  never 
varying,  summer  or  winter,  more  than  a  degree  or  two  from  r>'2°.  In  the  east 
is  the  broad,  low,  and  dry  plain.  In  the  southeast  is  the  burning  Colorado 
Desert.  The  ascending  currents  of  hot  air  over  these  vast  regions  draw  in  a 
colder  current  of  air  from  the  ocean  to  supply  their  place.  This  second  cur- 
rent, iji  passing  over  water  far  colder  than  itself,  is  cooled  down.  A  large 
part  of  its  invisible  moisture  is  thus  condensed  into  fog  and  mist,  which  are 
carried  to  the  shore,  where  they  are  soon  reabsorbed  by  the  drier  air. 


In  the  Great  Valley  there  are  greater  extremes  of  temperature. 
The  Coast  Range  excludes  the  cold  fogs,  and  the  cold  sea-winds  are 
gradually  tempered.  In  some  places  110°  to  112°  are  occasionally 
reached.  The  dry  atmosphere  prevents  all  injurious  effects,  and  al- 
lows a  rapid  radiation,  which,  with  the  cooling  winds  from  the  snows 
of  the  neighboring  Sierra,  makes  the  nights  cool  even  in  midsummer. 
All  these  climates  are  healthy,  and  epidemic  diseases  are  almost  un- 
known. 

Forests.  —  The  trees  of  California  are  mostly  evergreen  conifers, 
many  of  the  species  being  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  in  the  world. 
Forests  are  found  only  in  those  parts  of  the  state  that  have  more  than 
the  average  rain-fall.  The  western  flanks  of  the  Sierra,  and  those  of 
the  coast  mountains  north  of  35°,  have  fine  forests.  The  foot-hills  and 
the  coast  valleys  have  beautiful  groves  of  oaks.  The  entire  southern 
part  of  the  state,  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range  south  of  35°, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  Great  Valley  are  destitute  of  forests. 

The  mammoth  tree,  the  most  gigantic  of  conifers,  is  among  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  It  is  found  only  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra.  In  the  Calaveras 
grove  one  of  these  was  cut  down.  It  was  96  feet  in  circumference,  and  over 
300  feet  high.  Its  concentric  rings  showed  its  age  to  be  about  3000  years. 
In  the  same  grove  lies  a  fallen  tree  estimated  to  have  been,  when  living,  110 
feet  in  circumference  and  435  feet  high. 

Another  gigantic  species,  the  redwood,  resembles  the  mammoth  tree,  but  forms 
vast  forests.  It  is  found  only  in  the  Coast  Range,  from  Monterey  Bay  north- 
ward to  Oregon.  It  is  commercially  the  most  important  of  all  the  trees  of 
California,  and  furnishes  an  unlimited  supply  of  valuable  lumber.  Some 
specimens  are  l.")  feet  in  diameter  and  300  feet  high.  In  Santa  Cruz  County 
is  one  275  feet  high  and  19  feet  in  diameter  at  six  feet  above  the  ground. 

Next  in  size,  quantity,  and  importance  are  the  various  species  of  pines,  also  the 
largest  of  their  kind  in  the  world.  The  sugar  pine,  a  beautiful  tree,  has  some- 
times a  diameter  of  20  feet,  but  is  of  less  height  than  the  redwood. 

Animals. — The  wild  animals  are  of  many  species.  Among  the  mam- 
mals are  the  grizzly  bear,  black  bear,  cougar,  wildcat,  coyote,  gray  wolf,^ 
fox,  badger,  raccoon,  opossum,  pine -marten,  weasel,  squirrel,  spermo- 
phile,  gopher,  deer,  antelope,  mountain-sheep,  hare,  otter,  mink,  sea-lion, 
sea-elephant.  Among  the  birds  are  the  vulture,  eagle,  hawk,  owl,  quail, 
grouse,  duck,  goose,  and  swan ;  among  the  fishes,  the  salmon,  halibut, 
turbot,  mackerel,  rock-fish,  and  sturgeon. 

Minerals. — Among  the  many  wonders  of  California,  there  is  nothing 
more  extraordinary  than  the  variety,  abundance,  and  richness  of  her 
mineral  treasures.  Chief  among  these  are  those  great  deposits  of  gold 
which  first  made  the  state  famous  throughout  the  world.  These  de- 
posits are  diffused  from  the  Oregon  line  to  the  Colorado  Desert,  but 
by  far  the  greater  part  are  found  in  the  "foot-hills ''  drained  by  the  nu- 
merous branches  of  the  two  great  rivers.  In  lumps  or  nuggets,  in 
scales,  grains,  and  minute  particles,  this  metal  is  found  imbedded  in 
the  hard  veins  of  quartz  which  seam  the  solid  rock  of  the  Sierra ;  in 
the  vast  beds  of  clay,  gravel,  and  boulders  which  cover  the  lower  parts 
of  its  western  slope ;  in  the  banks,  beds,  and  bars  of  the  swift  rivers 
and  their  tributaries ;  and  even  in  the  sand  of  the  sea-shore. 

Extracting  gold  from  the  quartz  veins  is  known  as  quartz  mining. 
Extracting  it  from  the  beds  of  sand,  gravel,  and  boulders  is  called 
placer  mining.  Much  the  greater  part  of  the  gold  is  obtained  by 
placer  mining,  the  chief  method  of  which  is  called  hydraulic  mining. 

Hydraulic  placer  mining  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  of  human  industries. 
The  swift  streams  formed  by  the  rains  and  melting  snows  of  the  Sierra  have 
in  the  course  of  ages  worn  thousands  of  valleys  and  gorges  into  the  sitles  of 
the  moimtains.  Near  many  of  these  streams  are  vast  beds  of  gravel  resting 
upon  the  solid  rock,  and  containing  clay  and  boulders.  They  are  sometimes 
hundreds  of  feet  thick.  The  gold  is  found  in  these  beds,  most  of  it  near  the 
bottom.  By  ditches,  flumes,  and  pipes,  placed  at  a  suitable  height,  the  water 
of  a  stream  is  led  sometimes  for  miles,  and  then,  by  means  of  a  strong  hose 
and  pipe,  is  directed  as  a  stream  several  inches  in  diameter,  and  under  great 
pressure,  upon  the  side  of  the  gravel-bank.  The  bank  is  rapidly  torn  out 
down  to  the  solid  rock,  and  is  washed  away  as  a  torrent  of  mud,  pebbles,  and 
boulders  through  a  long  sluiceway  of  timbers  into  the  valley  below.     The 


GEOGRAfHY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 


sluiceway  has  a  false  bottom  and  various  otlier  contrivances  into  wliich  the 
particles  of  gold  fall  by  their  greater  weight. 

Many  thousands  of  years  ago  the  .Sierra  was  more  heavily  capped  with  glaciers 
and  snow  masses  than  now,  and  its  rivers  flowed  in  channels  different  from 
those  they  now  occupy.  About  the  close  of  this  period,  by  some  tremendous 
effort  of  nature,  the  crust  of  the  earth  over  a  vast  area  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  Cascade,  and  other  mountains  of  western  North  America, 
was  torn  open  in  huge  cracks  or  fissures,  and  enormous  masses  of  liquid  lava 
were  poured  out  into  the  mountain-valleys  and  over  the  plains,  gradually  cov- 
ering hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles  to  the  depth  of  hundreds,  and 
sometimes  of  thousands,  of  feet.  The  heat  thus  evolved,  or  some  other  equal- 
ly potent  cause,  rapidly  melted  the  thick  icy  cap  of  the  Sierra,  and  vast  bodies 
of  water  rushed  down  the  mountain  slope,  breaking,  rolling,  and  grinding  the 
solid  rocks,  and  filling  the  river-beds  to  a  great  depth  with  boulders,  pebbles, 
and  gravel.  Over  all  this  the  lava  flood  itself  at  last  found  its  way.  The 
river-courses  were  filled  to  the  brim,  and  the  beds  of  boulders  and  gravel 
were  buried  beneath  the  fiery  flood.  In  the  course  -of  time  the  glaciers  were 
renewed  on  a  yet  grander  scale,  and  the  streams  flowing  from  them  have  cut 
out  for  themselves  new  channels  far  deeper  than  before,  some  of  them  cross- 
ing the  old  beds  and  revealing  the  successive  steps  of  their  formation. 

These  ancient  river-beds,  capped  with  lava  and  other  substances  to  the  depth 
of  40  to  ITiO  feet,  are  found  to  be  very  rich  in  gold.  By  galleries  cut  into  the 
hill-sides,  of  which  the  beds  now  form  a  part,  and  by  shafts  sunk  through  the 
lava  cap,  this  treasure  is  reached,  and  the  gold-bearing  gravel  is  brought  to 
the  surface.     This  is  known  as  "deep  mining." 

Next  in  importance  among  the  metals  of  the  state  is  quicksilver. 
The  ore,  which  is  called  cinnabar,  has  been  found  in  many  places  in 
a  broad  belt  of  country  extending  from  Santa  Barbara  to  Lake  County. 
The  most  productive  mines  are  all  in  the  Coast  Mountains.  Silver  is 
found  in  many  places,  but  the  only  productive  mines  are  east  of  the 
main  divide  of  the  Sierra.  Copper  ore  is  known  to  be  abundant  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  state.  Coal  is  found  in  various  places,  but  much  of 
the  coal  used  is  imported. 

Other  metals  and  minerals  are  found  in  exhaustless  quantity.  Among  them  are 
sulphur,  borax,  soda,  salt,  petroleum,  asphaltum,  bitumen,  iron  ore,  chrome, 
tin,  plumbago,  granite,  and  limestone,  including  hydraulic  lime,  and  marbles 
in  great  variety. 

Agriculture. — The  agricultural  capacity  of  California  is  its  most 
important  and  remarkable  characteristic.     There  are,  at  the  least,  from 

twenty  millions  to 
twenty -three  mill- 
ions of  acres,  or 
about  thirty  -  six 
thousand  square 
miles,  of  tillable 
land,  and  quite  as 
inuch  more  well 
suited  for  pastur- 
age. But  a  small 
part  of  this  is  yet 
used. 

In  the  variety 
of  its  agricultural 
products  Califor- 
nia has  no  equal 
in  any  other  state 
of  the  Union ;  of 
the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  prod- 
ucts, the  quantity 
that  can  be  fur- 
nished is  limited 
only  by  the  sup- 
ply of  labor  and 
the  facility  in  find- 
ing profitable  mar- 

HVDRAULIC    MINING.  kCtS. 


The  quantity  produced  is  enormous. 


The  crops  are  mainly  dependent  upon  the  distribution  of  the  rain -fall.  As 
the  annual  amount  of  rain  is  frequently  much  less  or  much  greater  than  the 
average,  in  some  years  floods,  in  others  droughts,  chiefly  the  latter,  have  great- 
ly reduced  the  total  agricultural  product.  In  large  districts  of  the  state,  how- 
ever, and  especially  in  its  southern  and  drier  half,  the  water  of  the  streams 
formed  by  the  rains  or  the  melting  snows  of  the  mountains  is  led  by  suitable 
ditches,  and  distributed  over  lands  otherwise  barren,  but  thus  caused  to  be  very 
productive.  This  system  of  cheap  fertilization  is  being  rapidly  extended,  and, 
together  with  the  singular  advantages  furnished  by  the  climate,  will  cause 
California  to  becoiue,  even  more  than  now,  the  "garden  of  the  world." 

Wheat  is  the  leading  staple. 
Much  the  greater  part 
is  shipped  to  foreign 
countries,  chiefly  to 
Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. It  is  so  hard  and 
dry,  in  consequence  of 
the  climate,  that  it  is  not 
injured  in  being  thus 
carried  twice  across  the 
torrid  zone  and  half- 
way around  the  globe. 
Anotherpractical  effect 
of  the  absence  of  sum- 
mer rains  is,  that  the 
crop  is  never  lost  or 
injured  by  bad  harvest- 
weather,  and  may  re- 
main for  months  piled 
in  the  field  without 
damage.  Next  in  im- 
portance among  the 
grains  is  barley.  In- 
dian-corn is  extensive- 
ly raised  in  southern 
California,  and  the  crop 
is  rapidly  increasing. 
It  is  mostly  turned  into 
bacon  for  export.  Val- 
uable crops  of  hops, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and 
the  castor  bean  are 
produced.  Nearly  all 
the  important  fruits  of 
the  temperate  and  sub- 
tropical regions,  and  all 
kinds  of  garden  vege- 
tables, are,  or  can  be, 
produced  in  great  abun- 
dance. Of  live-stock,  sheep  are  generally  the  most  profitable,  and  the 
state  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  wool  of  excellent  quality. 

Among  the  fruits  are  grapes,  pears,  plums,  peaches,  apricots,  apples,  straw- 
berries, raspberries,  figs,  olives,  oranges,  lemons,  walnuts,  and  almonds. 

Principal  Mineral  and  Agricultural  Products  in  1879. 

Hay  (tons) 777,059 

Wool  (pounds) 17,106,824 

Butter       "        10,287,997 

Cheese      "        2,708,585 

Honey      "        3,720,643 

Horses 217,418 

Mules 20,G66 

Cattle 696,932 

Sheep 3,756,731 

Swine 322,660 


Gold $17,fi00,000 

Silver $2,400,000 

Wheat  (bushels) 28,643,318 

Barley         "       12,276,227 

Oats            "       1,C12,.'S80 

Maize         "       8,15t,642 

Pease  and  Beans  (bushels) 770,184 

Potatoes  (tons) 258,820 

Wine  (gallons) 7,790,365 

Brandy      "       284,305 

Manufactures. — California  has  great  natural  advantages  for  manu- 
facturing, in  the  unlimited  water-power,  in  the  undeveloped  coal  mines, 
and  in  the  abundance  and  variety  of  raw  materials.  These  advantages 
are,  as  yet,  but  little  employed.  The  greater  part  of  the  manufactured 
products,  excepting  lumber,  flour,  and  liquors,  are  made  in  San  Fran- 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 


Cisco.  The  wines  are  important  among  the  manufactures  of  the  United 
States,  and  rival  the  best  made  elsewhere  :  and  the  raisins,  a  rapidly 
increasing  product,  are  noted  for  their  excellence. 


Principal  Manufactured  Products  in  1879. 


Boots,  shoes,  Leather, etc.,  made  in  San 

Francisco $1,780,000 

Bread,  Exported  (pounds) 1 ,501,144 

Canned  Goods  (cans! 7,000,(100 

Chemicals  and  Powder $5,000,000 

Dairy  Prodncts $0,000,000 

Flouring  and  Grist-mill  Products  : 
Barrels  of  Flour,  including   300,000 

barrels  made  in  San  Francisco 1,322,914 

Bushels  of  Corn  ground 376,07S 

Liquors,  Distilled  and  Malt : 
Gallons   at  the  different  Breweries 

throughout  the  State  7,967,242 

Value  of  Manufactures  at  the  Brew- 
eries in  San  P'rancisco  $2,000,000 

Lumber,  Sawed,  Planed,  etc. : 

Feet  of  Lumber  sawed 307,127,000 

Shingles  made 61,878,500 


Wines  and  Brandies 

Salt,  Borax,  Soda: 
Value  of  Salt  ground  in  San  Fran- 
cisco   

Borax  produced  in  1870  (pounds)   .  . . 
Soap  and  Candles  manufactured  in  San 

Francisco 

Sugars,  Made  or  Refined,  manufactured 

in  San  Francisco 

Tobacco  and  Cigars ; 
Pounds  raised  in  the  State  in  the  year 

1879 

Cigars  manufactured   in    San   Fran- 
cisco   

Cigarettes  manufactured  in  San  Fran- 
cisco  

Woollens,  Blankets,  etc.,  manufactured 
in  San  Francisco 


$ 

$180,000 
1,554,980 

$2,460,000 

$5,308,000 

226,000 

107,000,000 

7,000,000 

$1,600,000 


Commerce. — The  commerce  of  California  is  varied  and  extensive. 
In  proportion  to  its  population,  no  other  state  imports  so  large  an 
amount  of  foreign  merchandise,  or  exports  so  large  a  share  of  its  agri- 
cultural and  mineral  products.  The  chief  imports  are  teas  from  Japan 
and  China ;  cofifee  from  Central  America  and  the  Spanish  and  Dutch 
East  Indies  ;  rice  from  China,  Japan,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands  ;  sugar 
from  the  Sandwich  Islands,  the  East  Indies,  and  Central  America ; 
coal  from  British  Columbia  and  Australia ;  and  general  merchandise 
from  Great  Britain.  In  exchange  for  these,  California  exports  the 
great  staples  of  the  western  coast :  wheat,  flour,  lumber,  gold,  silver, 
quicksilver,  mineral  ores,  wool,  salmon,  and  canned  goods.  Traffic  with 
the  rest  of  the  Union  is  carried  on  by  land  and  by  sea,  and  is  a  princi- 
pal department  of  the  general  commerce  of  the  state. 

The  commercial  advantages  of  California  are  unequalled  by  those  of  any  other 
part  of  the  western  coast.  San  Francisco  and  San  Diego  have  the  only  large, 
deep,  and  safe  harbors  from  Mazatlan  in  Mexico  to  Victoria  in  Vancouver,  a 
distance  of  about  2000  miles.  At  Wilmington  the  United  States  government 
has  constructed  an  extensive  artificial  harbor  of  great  value.  Numerous  light- 
houses and  fog-horns  add  to  the  safety  of  navigation. 

Besides  the  ocean  highways,  the  facilities  for  transportation  include  the  great 


STREET   SCENE   IN    SAN    FRANCISCO. 


bay  of  San  Francisco  and  its  tributary  tide-waters ;  the  two  great  navigable 
rivers  of  the  state  and  their  navigable  branches  ;  and  a  triple  system  of  rail- 
ways, of  which  the  principal  lines  converge  upon  the  chief  commercial  centre 
of  the  state.  The  first  group  of  these  roads  extends  northwardly  from  the 
northern  arms  of  the  great  bay.  The  chief  of  these  lines  follow  the  Sacra- 
mento valley,  and  will  soon  unite  the  system  of  California  with  that  of  Ore- 
gon. The  second  group  includes  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad,  a  great  trans- 
continental line.  It  has  many  branches.  This  road  passes  from  Oakland, 
through  Stockton  and  Sacramento,  and  over  the  Sierra.  It  directly  unites 
the  entire  transportation  system  of  the  state  with  the  systems  of  the  Missis- 
sippi basin  and  the  Atlantic  slope.  A  branch  of  this  road  extends  up  the 
San  Joaquin  valley  to  the  vicinity  of  Visalia.  Here  it  unites  with  the  third 
group  of  railways,  the  Southern  Pacific  and  its  branches.  This  road,  parts 
of  which  are  yet  under  construction,  begins  at  San  Francisco,  and  passes 
through  several  important  valleys  to  Yuma,  on  the  Colorado,  and  to  Deming, 
in  New  Mexico.  Here  it  connects  with  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe 
Railroad,  and  passes  eastward  towards  the  Rio  Grande.  Telegraph  lines 
connect  the  state  with  Vancouver,  Arizona,  and  the  Atlantic  ports,  and  thence 
through  the  ocean  cables  with  the  rest  of  the  civilized  world.  The  comple- 
tion of  the  proposed  ship-canal  across  the  Central  American  isthmus  will 
greatly  enhance  the  commercial  interests  of  California. 

Principal  Bailroads  in  1880. 

NAMGB.  BET^ESX  HIIBB. 

Central  Pacific Oakland  to  Ogden,  Utah 891 

Divisions,  Branches,  etc Oakland,  via  Benicia  to  Sacramento SC 

Amador   Branch Gait  to  lone 27 

San  Josd  Branch N  iles  to  Tracy 42 

California  and  Oregon Sacramento  to  Reading 170 

(South  Vallejo  to  Calistoga 42 

California  Pacific * ^  South  Vallejo  to  Suisun 20 

(Davisville  to  Knights  Landing 19 

Northern   Railway Woodland  to  Willows 65 

Stockton  and  Copperopolis Stockton  to  Oakdale 34 

Nevada  County Colfax  to  Grass  Valley 17 

Sacramento  and  Placerville Sacramento  to  Shingle  Springs 49 

North  Pacific  Coast San  Rafael  to  Duncans  Mills 80 

San  Francisco  and  North  Pacific San  Rafael  to  Cloverdale 70 

Southern  Pacific San  Francisco  to  Yuma,  Ariz 731 

Divisions,  Branches,  etc San  Francisco  to  Soledad 143 

Castroville  to  Monterey 42 

Gilroy  to  Tres  Pinos 100 

Los  Angeles  to  Wilmington 22 

Los  Angeles  to  Santa  Ana 33 

Santa  Cruz  Railroad Pajaro  to  Santa  Cruz 22 

South  Pacific  Coast Alameda  to  Santa  Cruz 

Los  Angeles  and  Independence Los  Angeles  and  Santa  Monica IS 

Political  Organization.  —  The  executive  officers  of 
the  state  are  a  Governor,  Lieutenant-Governor,  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Cpntroller,  Treasurer,  Attorney-General, 
Surveyor-General,  and  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction.    The  official  term  of  each  is  four  years. 

The  legislative  power  of  the  state  is  vested  in  a 
Senate  of  forty  members,  whose  terms  are  four  years 
each,  and  an  Assembly  of  eighty  members,  whose  terms 
are  two  years  each.  The  Legislature  meets  every  sec- 
ond year. 

The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court, 
Superior  Courts,  Justice's  Courts,  and  such  inferior 
courts  as  the  legislature  may  establish.  All  the  ex- 
ecutive officers,  legislators,  and  judges  are  elected  by 
the  people. 

California  is  represented  "in  Congress  by  two  Sena- 
tors and  four  Representatives,  and  has  therefore  six' 
electoral  votes. 

The  state  comprises  fifty-two  counties,  and  the  fol- 
lowing chief  cities  and  towns  : 

San  Francisco  is  the  chief  commercial  centre  and 
largest  city  of  the  western  coast  of  America,  and  the 
fourth  city  of  the  United  States  in  foreign  commerce. 
It  is  situated  on  the  western  shore  of  the  bay  of  the 
same  name,  in  latitude  37°  46'  north,  longitude  122°  2;i' 
west.  The  city  limits  extend  over  the  whole  county, 
and  include  about  forty-two  square  miles ;  the  settled 
portion  covers  about  nine  square  miles.  The  popula- 
tion is  233,956,  including  a  little  more  than  75,000 
Chinese. 


GEOGRAPHY   OF  CALIFORNIA. 


San  Francisco  is  built  just  within  the  Golden  Gate,  and  at  the  northern  end  of 
one  of  the  two  small  hilly  peninsulas  which  separate  the  bay  from  the  ocean. 
Telegraph  Hill,  29 1  feet,  a  bold  headland  projecting  into  the  harbor,  Rincon 
Hill,  120  feet,  and  Russian  Hill,  SfiO  feet  high,  and  lying  farther  inland,  here 
partly  enclose  a  sort  of  amphitheatre,  their  summits,  their  slopes,  and  espe- 
cially the  low  plain  between  their  foot  and  the  water's  edge,  being  covered 
with  the  more  densely  populated  parts  of  the  city.  The  business  part  of  the 
city  is  built  chiefly  of  brick,  iron,  and  stone.  Several  of  the  streets  are  among 
the  finest  in  the  world,  and  are  lined  with  splendid  hotels,  banks,  stores, 
churches,  theatres,  and  other  public  buildings. 

The  fine  climate,  the  pleasant  drives,  the  beautiful  private  dwellings  and  grounds, 
and  the  varied  social  advantages  afforded  by  the  numerous  churches,  schools, 
libraries,  and  places  of  amusement,  combine  to  make  San  Francisco  unusual- 
ly attractive  as  a  place  of  residence,  and  as  a  summer  resort.  The  chief 
public  pleasure-grounds  are  the  Woodward  Gardens  and  the  Golden  Gate 
Park,  the  latter  containing  1043  acres. 

Local  travel  is  accommodated  by  eight  lines  of  street  railroads,  and  by  steam 
ferries  and  railroads  to  the  neighboring  residential  cities  and  towns.  The 
chief  of  these  are  Oakland,  Alameda,  San  Rafael,  Berkeley,  Vallejo,  and 
Saucelito.  Most  of  these  are  the  termini  of  railroads.  The  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad  is  the  only  one  terminating  within  the  city  limits ;  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  terminates  at  Oakland;  the  other  railroads  of  the  state,  at  San 
Pablo  B.ay,  north  of  the  city.  A  conduit  nearly  thirty  miles  long  supplies 
the  city  with  water  from  Pilarcitos  Creek  in  the  San  Bruno  Hills,  San  Mateo 
County. 

Excepting  lumber,  flour,  and  liquors,  much  the  greater  part  of  the 
manufactures  of  the  state  are  produced  in.  San  Francisco.  Chief 
among  these  are  woollens,  carriages,  boots,  shoes,  and  leather,  fur- 
niture, candles,  soap,  malt  and  distilled  liquors,  acids,  wirework, 
castings  of  iron  and  brass,  refined  sugars,  tobacco  and  cigars,  silk 
goods,  glass,  sashes  and  doors,  newspapers,  books  and  other  printed 
matter. 

San  Francisco  is  pre-eminently  a  commercial  city.  In  proportion 
to  its  population  it  has  a  larger  and  more  extensive  trade  than 
any  other  city  in  the  world.  Its  export  trade  is  about  $75,000,000  a 
year. 

The  foundation  of  its  lasting  prosperity  is  its  noble  bay,  which  furnishes  the 
only  first-class  harbor  from  San  Diego  to  Puget  Sound,  a  distance  of  nearly 
1200  miles  The  entrance  is  through  the  Golden  Gate,  a  deep  strait,  35  feet 
at  low  tide,  with  bold  shores,  and  a  mile  wide  in  its  narrowest  part.  Through 
this  gateway  sailing  vessels  and  steamers  from  every  maritime  nation  on  the 
globe  are  continually  coming  and  going.  To  these  are  added  a  vast  fleet  of 
coasting  vessels  which  visit  every  port  of  the  eastern  and  northern  Pacific, 
from  Chili  to  the  fishing-grounds  of  Alaska  and  the  Okhotsk  Sea,  and  assist 
to  make  the  city  the  chief  collecting  and  distributing  depot  for  at  least  a  third 
of  North  America. 

Within  the  strait  the  broad  bay  extends  its  arms  to  the  south,  and  to  the  north 
and  east,  where  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  double  system  of  rivers,  which 
furnish  cheap  transportation  to  the  chief  mineral  and  agricultural  districts  of 
the  state.  In  addition  to  this,  the  conformation  of  the  continent,  and  the  fa- 
cilities which  the  city  possesses  for  export  and  import,  make  it  the  natural 
focus  of  the  chief  part  of  the  railway  system  of  the  Interior  Basin  and  the  Pa- 
cific slope  of  the  United  Slates.  Angel,  Goat,  and  Alcatraz  islands  lie  in  the 
bay  and  near  the  city,  and  have  been  reserved  by  the  general  government  for 
defensive  purposes.  Fort  Point  has  the  heaviest  fortifications  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  At  Hunters  Point,  just  south  of  the  city,  is  a  large  dry-dock.  It  was 
hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  world. 

The  public-school  system  of  San  Francisco  is  well  organized,  and 
the  schools  are  widely  known  for  their  efficiency. 

In  1880  there  were  39  primary,  14  grammar,  and  2  high  schools,  and  4  even- 
ing schools.  The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  was  38,320;  the  average  daily 
attendance  28,1, 'lO,  taught  by  (iSG  teachers.  Among  other  educational 
and  literary  institutions  are  many  corporate  and  private  schools  of  a  high 
order. 

Sacramento,  in  Sacramento  County,  on  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad, 
is  the  capital  of  the  state.  It  is  built  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Sacra- 
mento and  the  south  bank  of  the  American,  which  here  unites  with  the 
main  stream.  The  site,  which  is  part  of  an  extensive  and  fertile  plain, 
has  been  raised  about  ten  feet  above  its  natural  level  in  order  to  pro- 
tect the  city  from  devastating  floods.     Population  21,420. 


Sacramento  River  is  navigable  to  this  point  for  large  steamboats  and 
sailing  vessels,  and  for  steamers  of  light  draught  to  Red  Bluff,  240  miles 
farther  up.  The  city  is  further  important  as  the  meeting-place  of  the 
Central  Pacific,  California  Pacific,  Sacramento  and  Placerville,  and  Cal- 
ifornia and  Oregon  railroads,  which,  with  the  river  and  the  numerous 
radiating  stage  routes,  make  it  a  great  centre  of  travel  and  trade  for 
both  the  agricultural  and  the  mining  regions. 

The  business  interests  are  large  and  varied,  the  sales  of  manufactured 
products  and  other  merchandise  amounting,  in  1868,  to  more  than 
$2.5,000,000.  Among  the  chief  manufactures  and  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments are  agricultural  implements,  carriages,  furniture,  wooden- 
ware,  pottery,  wine,  brandy,  and  beet  sugar;  iron  works,  smelting 
and  refining  works,  and  planing,  flouring,  and  woollen  mills.  The 
car  works  and  chief  shops  of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad  are  located 
here. 

Sacramento  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  of  cities.  Its  climate  is  dry  and  semi-trop- 
ical. Its  streets  are  planted  with  fine  shade  trees,  and  its  many  tasteful  resi- 
dences are  surrounded  by  beautiful  gardens  in  which  flowers  bloom  all  the 
year. 

The  capitol  is  one  of  the  grandest  and  most  beautiful  public  buildings  in  the 
United  States.  The  public  schools  include  a  high-school,  a  grammar-school, 
several  intermediate,  and  a  large  number  of  primary  schools.  Among 
other  educational  and  literary  institutions  are  the  Normal  Institute,  the 
Business  College,  St.  Patrick's  College,  and  the  State  and  Association 
libraries. 

Cmco,  in  Butte  County,  is  on  the  California  and  Oregon  Railroad,  and  on  Chico 
Creek,  six  miles  from  Sacramento  River.  It  has  valuable  water-power.  The 
lumber  trade  is  the  leading  interest.  From  the  mills  in  the  heavily  timbered 
region  of  the  Sierra,  a  vast  quantity  of  lumber  is  floated  through  a  "V" 
flume,  35  miles  long  and  terminating  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town.  Numerous 
stage  lines  radiate  from  this  point.     Population,  .5000. 

Eureka,  a  city  of  Humboldt  County,  is  on  Humboldt  Bay.  It  is  the  most  im- 
portant town  on  the  north  coast  of  California.  It  occupies  an  elevated  site 
two  miles  from  the  beach,  and  overlooks  the- bay  and  the  ocean.  It  has  a 
large  export  trade  in  lumber  and  agricultural  products,  and  is  the  distributing 
point  for  a  large  amount  of  general  merchandise.     Population,  2039. 

Grass  Valley,  in  Nevada  County,  2.500  feet  above  the  sea-level,  is  on  the 
Nevada  County  Railroad,  thirteen  miles  northwest  of  the  Central  Pacific 
Railroad.  It  is  the  chief  quartz-mining  town  of  California,  and  contains  some 
of  the  richest  mines  in  the  state.     Population,  4500. 

Los  Angeles,  in  Los  Angeles'  County,  on  Los  Angeles  River,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  cities  of  the  state.  It  is  built  on  a  gentle  slope  at  the  base 
of  the  Santa  Monica  Mountains.  Five  lines  of  railroad  have  here  a  common 
centre.  One  of  these,  the  Southern  Pacific,  connects  the  city  witli  the  gen- 
eral railway  system  of  the  state  and  of  the  Union.  The  lines  to  the  neigh- 
boring ports,  Santa  Monica  and  Wilmington,  give  ready  access  to  the  ocean. 
The  facilities  for  transportation  by  land  and  sea,  together  with  the  extraordi- 
nary fertility^if  the  neighboring  country,  and  its  salubrious  climate,  make  the 
city  a  favorite  winter  resort  and  the  chief  centre  of  trade  for  southern  Califor- 
nia. The  excellent  artificial  harbor  at  Wilmington  and  the  long  wharf  at 
Santa  Monica  accommodate  the  coastwise  traffic  and  travel. 

The  city  is  beautiful  with  gardens  and  orchards,  which  contain  a  remarkable 
variety  of  tropical  and  semi-tropical  fruits  and  trees.  Among  them  are  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  orange,  lemon,  lime,  and  fig  trees,  and  millions  of  grape- 
vines. Besides  these  are  the  pomegranate,  the  banana,  the  palm,  the  cypress, 
the  live-oak,  and  many  others.  Among  the  exports  are  wine,  brandy,  fresh 
and  dried  fruits,  wheat,  barley,  corn,  bacon,  honey,  and  wool.  The  public 
buildings,  and  the  educational  and  religious  institutions,  are  among  the  best 
in  the  state.     Population  11,311. 

Marysvillk,  a  city  iii  Yuba  County,  is  at  the  junction  of  Yuba  and  Feather  riv- 
ers. The  latter  stream  is  at  all  times  navigable  to  this  point  by  light-draught 
steamers.  The  surrounding  country  is  a  low  and  level  plain,  and  the  site  of 
the  city  has  been  raised  several  feet  for  protection  against  floods.  Marysville 
is  one  of  the  largest  towns  north  of  Sacramento  River,  and  is  the  centre  of  a 
large  trade  with  the  mining  towns  of  the  Sierra,  and  with  the  agricultural 
district  with  which  it  is  surrounded.  It  has  a  considerable  manufacturing 
interest,  and  ships  a  large  quantity  of  lumber.     Population,  5012. 

Napa,  in  Napa  County,  is  on  the  Napa  'Valley  branch  of  the  California  Pacific 
Railroad,  and  at  the  head  of  tide-water  on  Napa  River,  here  navigable  for 
vessels  of  light  draught.  The  town  is  the  business  centre  of  a  great  agricult- 
ural valley,  which  is  also  rich  in  mines  of  silver,  gold,  and  quicksilver. 
Wine  and  brandy  are  manufactured.  Hot  springs,  sulphur  springs,  and  a  fos- 
sil forest  of  large  petrified  trees  are  found  in  the  county.     Population,  3731. 

Nevada  City,  in  Nevada  County,  is  '?3S0  feet  above  the  sea-level,  fifteen  miles 


10 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 


from  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad,  and  at  the  terminus  of  the  Nevada  County 
Railroad.  It  is  in  one  of  the  richest  gold  fields  of  the  state.  Quartz  and 
hydraulic  mining  are  extensively  carried  on  here.     Population,  .'5000. 

Oakland,  in  Alameda  County,  is  the  chief  railway  terminus  of  the  state.  It  is 
a  rapidly  growing  city,  and  is  already  the  second  in  population  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  It  is  noted  for  its  elegant  private  residences,  its  parks  and  gardens, 
its  profusion  of  majestic  live-oaks,  its  fine  drives,  and  the  picturesque  beauty 
and  variety  of  the  scenery  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  It  has  a  good  harbor 
and  other  great  commercial  advantages.  Two  piers,  nearly  three  miles  long, 
extend  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad  to  the  deep  water  of  the  bay,  and  furnish 
facilities  for  loading  and  unloading  the  largest  ocean  steamers.  Steam  ferries 
connect  with  San  Francisco.  There  are  six  street  railroads.  Manufacturing 
is  a  leading  interest,  the  products  being  of  great  variety  and  of  large  total 
value.  The  education  and  literary  institutions  of  Oakland,  and  its  suburban 
villages,  are  among  the  greatest  of  its  many  attractions,  and  include  the 
California  Military  Academy  at  Oakland  and  the  University  of  California  at 
Berkeley,  which  is  the  most  important  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Population, 
84,.W6. 

Petaluma,  in  Sonoma  County,  on  the  San  Francisco  and  North  Pacific  Rail- 
road, at  the  head  of  navigation  on  Petaluma  Creek.  It  is  an  important  shipping 
point  for  wheat,  barley,  dairy  products,  lumber,  and  oats.     Population,  3Si>'2. 

San  Bernardino,  in  San  Bernardino  County,  occupies  a  beautiful  position,  on 
a  high  and  gently  sloping  plain,  at  the  base  of  the  lofty  San  Bernardino 
Mountains.  It  is  four  miles  from  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  Its  streets 
have  irrigating  ditches,  fed  with  the  melting  snows  of  the  neighboring 
hills.  It  is  surrounded  by  extensive  gardens,  vineyards,  and  orchards,  and 
is  the  centre  of  numerous  routes  leading  from  the  mining  regions.  Be- 
sides the  mineral  products,  it  exports  wine,  wool,  and  barley.  Population 
4000. 

San  Diego,  in  San  Diego  County,  is  built  on  a  beautiful  and  commanding  site 
on  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  sixteen  miles  north  of  the  national  boundary. 
In  the  vicinity  there  are  numerous  important  gold-mines,  and  an  abundance 
of  other  metals.  The  harbor  is  the  best  on  the  coast  after  that  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  spacious  bay,  over  twenty  miles  in  length,  is  entered  by  a  deep 
strait,  about  one  third  of  a  mile  wide.  Whaling  is  carried  on  just  outside  the 
entrance  to  the  bay,  and  there  are  other  important  fisheries  in  the  vicinity. 
The  Texas  and  Pacific  Railroad,  when  completed,  is  to  make  San  Diego  its 
ocean  terminus,  and  must  greatly  assist  in  its  growth  and  importance.  Whale- 
oil,  hides,  and  wool  are  the  chief  exports.     Population  about  oOOO. 

San  Jose,  in  Santa  Clara  County,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad  with  the  San  Jose  branch  of  the  Central  Pacific.  Coyote 
and  Guadalupe  rivers  flow  through  the  town.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable 
trade,  and  has  a  variety  of  manufactures.  The  Alameda  is  a  beautiful  ave- 
nue, three  miles  long,  lined  with  fine  shade  trees,  and  reaching  to  Santa  Clara. 
San  Jose  has  an  unusual  number  of  large  and  handsome  public  buildings. 
Among  other  institutions  are  the  State  Normal  School,  College  of  Notre 
Dame,  San  Jose  Institute,  and  Business  College.     Population,  12,,5G7. 

Santa  Barbara,  in  Santa  Barbara  County,  is  noted  as  a  health  resort  and  for 
its  export  of  wool.  The  town  fronts  on  the  ocean,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
beautiful  undulating  country.  In  the  Ticinity  are  important  deposits  of  gold, 
iron,  quicksilver,  and  petroleum.     Population,  34G9. 

Santa  Cruz,  in  .Santa  Cruz  County,  is  situated  on  Monterey  Bay,  and  on  a 
•branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  Santa  Cruz  is  a  fashionable  water- 
ing-place, and  has  fine  beach-bathing  and  drives.  The  vicinity  is  mountain- 
ous, well  timbered,  and  adapted  to  grazing.     Population,  4000. 

Santa  Rosa,  in  Sonoma  County,  is  on  the  San  Francisco  and  North  Pacific 
Railro.ad.  Fruits  and  grain  are  produced  in  unusual  variety  and  quantity, 
and,  with  butter,  cheese,  wine,  and  brandy,  form  the  chief  staples  of  an  exten- 
sive trade.  The  neighboring  mines  produce  gold,  copper,  and  quicksilver. 
The  town  is  the  site  of  two  colleges.     Population,  4000. 

Stockton,  in  San  Joaquin  County,  on  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad,  is  on  Stock- 
ton Slough,  a  short  and  navigable  branch  of  San  Joaquin  River.  It  is  the 
head  of  navigation  for  large  vessels  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley.  The  Stock- 
ton and  Copperopolis  Railroad  here  joins  the  Central  Pacific.  Abundant 
water  for  irrigation  and  other  purposes  is  supplied  by  numerous  wells  and 
wind-mills,  and  by  a  fine  artesian  well.  Besides  a  htrge  trade  in  wheat,  wool, 
and  other  agricultural  products,  the  city  has  extensive  manufacturing  interests. 
Population,  10,287. 

Tkuckee,  in  Nevada  County,  is  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  on 
the  Centr.al  P<acific  Railroad.  The  surrounding  country  is  grand,  romantic, 
and  heavily  timbered.  Donner  Lake  and  Lake  Tahoe,  noted  summer  resorts, 
are  a  few  miles  distant.  Truckee  River  flows  through  the  town  and  furnishes 
water-power  by  which  an  immense  amount  of  lumber  is  furnished  for  the 
trade  with  Nevada.  Sashes,  doors,  and  other  wood-work  are  manufactured, 
and  large  quantities  of  ice  shipped.     Population,  1478. 

Vallfjo,  a  city  of  .Solano  County,  is  on  Vallejo  Bay.  The  bay  is  a  fine  harbor, 
deep  enough  for  the  largest  vesspls.     V-t'lejo  is  the  southern  terminus  of  the 


California  Pacific  Railroad.  A  large  amount  of  gr.iin  is  here  shipped  to 
Europe.  Immediately  across  the  bay  and  half  a  mile  distant  is  Mare  Island, 
the  site  of  the  United  States  Navy-yard,  the  naval  depot  of  the  P.acific  coast. 
It  is  connected  with  Vallejo  by  a  steam  ferry.  Population  about  3.">00. 
Woodland,  in  Yolo  County,  on  the  California  Pacific  Railroad.  In  summer 
it  is  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  wheat-field,  and  has  an  extensive  trade  in  that 
grain.     Wine,  brandy,  and  malt  liquors  are  manufactured.     Population,  2356. 

Among  the  other  principal  cities  and  towns  are — 


Benicia — in  Solano  County,  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  Strait  of  Carquinez,  Government  depot 
for  arms  and  supplies  for  the  Pacific  coast. 
Contains  the  only  law -school  of  the  state. 
Cement,  flour,  leather,  gloves.  Population, 
20TC. 

Colusa  —  in  Colusa  County,  on  the  Sacramento. 
Large  trade  with  farmers,  graziers,  and  quick- 
silver miners.  County  noted  for  wool,  wheat, 
barley,  and  pork.     Population,  2050. 

Folgom  —  in  Sacramento  County,  on  American 
River,  at  the  base  of  the  Sierra.  Extensive 
granite  quarries.     Population,  1000. 

Gilroy — in  Santa  Clara  County,  on  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific Railroad.  Agricultural  and  dairy  region. 
Centre  of  tobacco  cultivation.  Manufactures 
tobacco  and  cigars.     Population,  1621. 

Healdsburi^ — in  Sonoma  County,  in  Russian  River 
valley,  which  is  noted  for  its  yield  of  wheat 
and  vegetables.  Trade  with  neighboring 
quicksilver  mines.     Population,  1153. 

Hollister— in  San  Benito  County.  On  a  branch 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  Has  a 
large  trade  with  the  New  Idria  Quicksilver 
and  other  mines.     Population,,! 003. 

Merced — in  Merced  County,  in  the  San  Joaquin 
valley,  on  a  branch  of  the  Central  Pacific 
Railroad.  Shipping  point  for  an  immense 
amount  of  wheat,  barley,  cotton,  and  tobac- 
co. District  has  a  great  number  of  irrigating 
ditches.  San  Joaquin  and  Kings  River  Ca- 
n:il,  100  miles  long,  C8  feet  wide,  and  6  feet 
deep.     Population,  1472. 

Modesto— in  Stanislaus  County,  on  San  Joaquin 
branch  of  Central  Pacific  Railroad.  Import- 
ant shipping  and  trading  depot  for  a  large 
agricultural  region.     Population,  ITOO. 

Monterey— a  town  of  Monterey  County,  on  bay  of 
same  name,  and  on  Monterey  and  Salinas  Val- 
ley Railroad.  The  capital  of  California  under 
Spanish  and  Mexican  rule.  Whale  fishery. 
Shipments  of  wheat.     Population,  1600. 

Oroyille— in  Butte  County,  on  Feather  River  and 
the  Northern  California  Railroad.  Trade  in 
live-stock,  wool,  peanuts,  raisins,  wine,  and 
brandy.     Population,  1800. 

Placerrlllc  —  in  El  Dorado  County.  In  mining 
district,  twelve  miles  from  terminus  of  Sacra- 
mento and  Placerville  Railroad.  Fruits, 
wine,  and  brandy.     Population,  1952. 


Bed  BlolT— in  Tehama  County,  on  west  bank  of 
Sacramento  River.  Large  wood,  lumber,  and 
flour  trade.     Population,  2HI6. 

Kedwood  City— in  San  Mateo  County,  on  Redwood 
Creek  and  the  San  Jos«5  bi  antli  of  the  South- 
em  Pacific  Railroad.  Lumber,  cord-wood, 
t,in-bark,  and  grain.     Population,  liiGO. 

San  Bnenaventura— in  Ventura  County,  at  mouth 
of  San  Buenaventura  River.  Ships  large 
quantities  of  barley  and  com.  Also  wool, 
wheat,  fruit,  and  petroleum.  Population, 
1385. 

San  Lnis  Obispo — in  San  Luis  Obispo  County, 
nine  miles  from  landing.  Centre  of  trade  of 
a  fertile  valley.  Sliips  cattle,  hides,  wool, 
and  dairy  products.     Population,  2W3. 

San  Pablo— in  Contra  Costa  County,  on  San  Pablo 
Bay.     Population,  1075. 

Santa  Clara — in  Santa  Clara  County,  three  miles 
west  of  San  Jos^.  Site  of  College  of  Santa 
Clara  and  of  the  University  of  the  Pacific. 
Population,  2416. 

Sonora — in  Tuolumne  County,  on  Woods  Creek. 
Finely  located  mountain  town.  Chiefly  agri- 
cultural.    Population,  1492. 

St.  Helena— in  Napa  County.  Agricultural  and 
mineral  region.  On  Napa  Valley  Railroad. 
Wine  and  fruit.     Population,  13.38. 

Yisalia — in  Tulare  County,  on  Mill  Creek.  On  a 
spur  of  the  San  Joaquin  branch  of  Central 
Pacific  Railroad.  Extensive  trade  in  grain, 
cattle,  and  wool.  Country  largely  irrigated 
and  very  productive.     Population,  1412. 

Watsonville  —  in  Santa  Cruz  County,  on  P.njaro 
River,  three  miles  from  Watsons  Landing. 
Centre  of  trade  for  Pajaro  valley.  Ships  a 
large  amount  of  produce.     Population,  1980. 

Wilmington— in  Los  Angeles  County.  Port  and 
harbor  of  refuge,  on  navigable  arm  of  San 
Pedro  Bay.  United  States  government  has 
constructed  a  breakwater,  about  a  mile  and 
a  half  long,  and  deepened  the  channel. 
Shipping  point  for  Los  Angeles.  Popula- 
tion, 910. 

Yreka— in  Siskiyou  County,  on  Yreka  Creek.  In 
Shasta  valley,  2450  feet  above  the  sea.  Most 
northern  large  inland  town  of  California. 
On  the  main  road  between  California  and 
Oregon.  Extensive  gold  and  agricultural 
region.     Population,  1500. 


Education. — Public  education  is  liberally  provided  for.  The  pub- 
lic schools  are  open  to  all  between  six  and  twenty -one  years  of 
age,  and  are  under  the  general  control  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, which  consists  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
the  Governor,  and  the  principal  of  the  State  Normal  School. 

In  1880  there  were  about  3400  teachers  and  21."),!J78  enrolled  pupils.  The 
system  embraces  primary,  grammar,  and  high  schools,  the  State  Normal 
School,  and  the  University  of  California. 

History. — For  several  centuries  after  the  voyage  of  Columbus  (1492) 
California  remained  an  unknown  land.  In  1542,  Cabrillo,  a  Spanish 
officer,  made  the  first  northward  voyage  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the 
44th  degree  of  latitude.  Upon  this  voyage  the  claims  of  Spain  to  Cali- 
fornia were  founded.  Thirty-seven  years  afterwards  (1579),  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  a  famous  English  navigator,  visited  the  coast  and  entered  a  bay, 
generally  supposed  to  be  that  now  bearing  his  name. 

It  was  not  until  1769,  227  years  after  the  voyage  of  Cabrillo,  that 
the  Spaniards  began  to  explore  and  occupy  the  region  whose  coast  he 
had  seen.  England  had  recently  added  nearlyall  of  what  we  now  call 
British  America  to  her  extensive  American  colonies,  had  conquered  and 
occupied  a  large  part  of  Hindostan,  had  opened  her  China  trade,  and 
had  sent  Captain  Cook  to  explore  the  hitherto  unknown  islands  and 
shores  of  the  Pacific.  Among  the  bold  and  far-seeing  plans  of  her 
merchants  and  statesmen  was  the  Occupation  of  the  Pacific  coasts  of 
Australia  and  North  America. 

It  was  the  knowledge  of  these  things  that  at  last  aroused  the  activity 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 


11 


of  Spain.  As  the  simplest  and  most  expeditious  plan  for  securing- 
possession  of  the  country,  it  was  resolved  to  establish  a  line  of  mission 
stations  among  the  Indians  of  the  coast,  with  the  further  purpose  of 
their  conversion  to  the  Christian  faith.  The  establishment  and  con- 
trol of  these  missions  was  confided  to  the  monks  of  a  Mexican  convent 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis,  by  whom  the  first  settlement  within  the 
limits  of  the  state  was  formally  established  at  San  Diego  on  the  11th 
of  July,  1760.  Other  similar  establishments  soon  followed,  and  the 
whole  coast  was  explored.  On  the  .3d  of  June,  1770,  Monterey  was 
founded,  and  on  the  7th  of  November,  of  the  same  year,  Crespi  sailed 
through  the  strait  now  called  the  Golden  Gate,  discovered  the  mag- 
nificent bay,  and  gave  it  the  name  it  still  bears.  By  degrees  a  great 
part  of  the  Indian  tribes  were  assembled  about  the  missions  and  be- 
came partly  civilized,  and  the  grain,  fruits,  and  domestic  animals  of 
Europe  were  introduced.  For  the  better  control  of  the  Indians,  immi- 
gration was  discouraged,  no  one  being  allowed  to  own  any  part  of  the 
soil.     The  mission  rule  continued  about  sixty-four  years. 

In  1 822,  after  a  long  contest,  Mexico  established  her  independence 
of  Spain.  In  1833,  the  loyalty  of  the  monks  of  California  to  the  repub- 
lic being  distrusted,  the  control  of  the  country  was  taken  from  them,  a 
Mexican  governor  was  appointed,  and  California  was  thrown  open  to 
immigration.  Numerous  large  tracts  of  land  were  granted  to  individ- 
uals, to  become,  in  after-years,  the  cause  of  endless  litigation.  Monte- 
rey was  made  the  capital.  The  missions  rapidly  declined,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  Indian  converts  dispersed. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  frequent  civil  wars  in  Mexico,  and 
the  consequent  weakness  and  instability  of  the  distant  central  govern- 
ment, made  it  obvious  that,  sooner  or  later,  California  would  probably 
become  a  possession  of  France,  England,  or  the  United  States.  Be- 
tween 1843  and  1840  a  large  number  of  immigrants  entered  the  coun- 
try, most  of  them  Americans  from  Oregon  and  the  Mississippi  valley. 
The  revolt  of  Texas,  and  its  subsequent  admission  into  the  Union,  led 
to  the  Mexican  war.  In  June,  184(5,  the  commander  of  the  American 
fleet  lying  at  Mazatlan,  on  the  west  coast  of  Mexico,  received  infor- 
mation of  the  first  battle  on  the  Rio  Grande.  He  promptly  set  sail  for 
Monterey,  and,  on  the  7th  of  July,  took  formal  possession  of  that  place 
and  of  California.  On  the  next  day  the  port  of  Yerba  Buena  was  oc- 
cupied, and  became  at  once  the  chief  military  and  naval  station  of  the 
United  States  on  the  west  coast.  In  January,  1847,  its  name  was 
changed  to  San  Francisco.  By  the  treaty  of  February  2,  1848,  a  vast 
region,  extending  from  Texas  to  the  Pacific,  and  including  California, 
was  formally  ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United  States. 

On  the  19th  of  January,  1848,  Marshall  found  gold  in  the  race  of 
Sutter's  mill  at  Coloma.  This  led  to  further  search,  and  the  richness 
and  vast  area  of  the  deposits  of  that  precious  metal  were  soon  made 
apparent.  In  a  few  weeks  the  news  had  spread  over  the  Pacific  coast, 
and,  in  a  few  months,  over  the  whole  civilized  world.  An  unparalleled 
excitement  and  migration  soon  followed.  From  Asia,  Australia,  Eu- 
rope, and  the  United  States,  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  hurried 
to  the  land  of  gold.  In  May,  1849,  at  least  20,000  men  marched  from 
Missouri  River,  and  for  several  subsequent  years  the  perilous  route 
across  the  Plains  was  a  principal  road  to  California. 

The  position  of  San  Francisco  at  the  ocean  doorway  to  this  vast 
treasury  at  once  raised  that  place  to  great  importance.  The  harbor 
was  crowded  with  ships  from  every  maritime  nation,  and  a  great  city, 
at  first  of  tents  and  sheds,  and  afterwards  of  more  substantial  materials, 
sprang  up  as  if  by  magic.  A  little  later,  and  from  the  Atlantic  ports 
came  great  fleets  of  sailing  vessels  of  a  size  and  speed  never  before 
known,  crowded  with  eager  gold-hunters,  and  freighted  with  everything 
that  might  find  a  market  among  a  people  made  recklessly  extravagant 
by  the  sudden  acquisition  of  apparently  exhaustless  wealth.  Shorter 
routes  to  the  golden  land  were  soon  found.  Lines  of  steamers  ran  to 
the  narrow  isthmus  of  Panama  from  the  Atlantic  ports  on  one  side  and 
from  San  Francisco  on  the  other.     On  the  23d  of  January,  1854,  the 


Panama  Railroad  was  completed,  and  thenceforth  communication  with 
the  Atlantic  shores  was  relatively  easy. 

Meanwhile  the  most  mixed  multitude  ever  assembled  moved  forward 
with  unexampled  rapidity  to  permanent  political  organization.  On  the 
1st  of  September,  1849,  a  constitutional  convention  assembled  at  Mon- 
terey. Its  work  was  adopted  by  the  people,  and,  on  the  9th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1 850,  California  was  admitted  as  a  state  of  the  Union. 

Social  perils,  unavoidable  in  such  a  community,  soon  developed 
themselves.  In  December,  1849,  and  again  in  May  and  June,  1851, 
fires,  supposed  to  be  of  incendiary  origin,  swept  away  large  parts  of  the 
city  and  of  its  wealth.  Crimes  of  violence  were  of  daily  and  open  oc- 
currence. With  the  crowds  of  industrious  miners  there  had  come  a 
horde  of  idle,  vicious  men,  many  of  them  the  banished  outlaws  of  other 
lands.  Their  numbers  gave  them  local  political  power.  Through  their 
blighting  influence  justice  was  perverted  and  corrupted,  and  the  very 
foundations  of  social  order  were  in  peril.  In  1856  these  evils  had  be- 
come intolerable,  and  the  better  elements  of  society  rapidly  organized 
for  its  preservation.  A  large  body  of  the  citizens  formed  themselves 
into  an  armed  and  disciplined  force,  and  an  executive  committee  was 
appointed.  Many  of  the  most  notorious  criminals  were  arrested; 
others  fled  the  state.  No  one  was  punished  without  full  and  fair  trial. 
Four  were  executed  and  many  others  were  banished.  When  its  work 
was  done,  the  organization  quietly  disbanded,  and  affairs  peacefully  re- 
sumed their  natural  course. 

The  annual  production  of  gold,  which  had  risen  to  about  $65,000,000 
in  1853,  soon  after  began  to  decline.  The  most  accessible  and  easily 
wrought  placers  were  exhausted,  and  discoveries  of  gold  and  silver  in 
adjacent  or  distant  territories  and  in  Australia  called  away  a  large  part 
of  the  mining  population.  In  1859  the  production  had  fallen  to  about 
$50,000,000  ;  in  1801  to  $40,000,000  ;  and  in  1880  to  $17,500,000. 

In  the  meanwhile'  immigration  continued,  and  steadily  increasing 
numbers  came  with  their  families  to  make  California  their  permanent 
home.  Various  new  industries  in  mining  and  manufactures  were  de- 
veloped. The  extraordinary  agricultural  capacity  of  the  state  was 
recognized,  and  it  became  evident  that  the  grain,  wine,  fruits,  lumber, 
and  wool  of  the  state  were  a  greater  and  more  lasting  source  of  pros- 
perity than  the  gold  had  been.  In  1807  the  value  of  the  merchandise 
exported  already  equalled  the  entire  gold  product  of  the  state.  The 
discovery  of  the  rich  silver  mines  of  Nevada  added  greatly  to  the  pros- 
perity of  California,  and  especially  of  its  chief  port,  and  it  was  still  fur- 
ther increased  by  an  event  which  marks  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the 
state  and  of  the  country.  This  was  the  completion  of  the  first  great 
transcontinental  railway,  in  September,  1869,  by  which  the  whole  Mis- 
sissippi valley  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard  were  brought  within  a  few 
days'  easy  reach  of  San  Francisco.  A  still  more  rapid  increase  of  the 
immigration  followed,  and  has  already  largely  affected  the  development 
of  the  resources  of  the  state.  Other  events  of  moment  have  subsequent- 
ly occurred ;  among  them  are  the  great  extension  of  the  local  railroad 
system,  the  rapid  increase  of  irrigation  and  hydraulic  mining,  and  the 
adoption,  in  1879,  of  a  new  state  constitution,  which  went  into  effect 
January  1,  1880.  The  immigration  of  very  large  numbers  of  Chinese 
has  given  rise  to  new  social  and  industrial  problems,  the  solution  of 
which  is  yet  in  the  future.  During  the  Civil  War  California  remained 
faithful  to  the  Union,  and  her  treasures  were  generously  poured  forth 
for  the  national  cause,  and  in  aid  of  those  whose  sufferings  in  the  field 
and  the  hospital  justly  demanded  her  sympathies  and  her  assistance. 


Questions. — Describe  the  situation  of  California.  Its  mountain  surface.  Its 
double  valley.  The  Lake  Region.  Klamath  Flateau.  The  islands.  TJie  drainage. 
The  climate.  The  forests.  The  animals.  Minerals  and  mining.  Agriculture.  The 
leading  staples.  Manufactures.  The  leading  products.  Commerce.  Its  staples. 
Coast  advantages.  Transportation.  Political  organization.  Describe  San  Francisco. 
Sacramento.  Other  important  places.  What  is  said  of  education  .>  Give  an  outline 
of  the  history  of  California. 


13 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   OREGON. 


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14 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   OREGON. 


or  April.  Snow  occasionally  falls,  but  is  seldom  deep,  and  soon 
disappears.  Ice  is  rarely  more  than  an  inch  or  two  in  thickness. 
In  some  winters,  flowers  bloom  in  the  gardens  throughout  the  season, 
even  as  far  north  as  the  mouth  of  the  Willamette.  The  dry  season 
is  longer  in  the  south  than  in  the  north.  During  this  part  of  the 
year  the  sky  is  generally  clear.  From  June  Until  October  very  little 
rain  falls.  The  summer  nights  are  always  Cool,  the  days  never  op- 
pressive.    The  coast  region  has  the  most  humid  climate. 

The  climate  of  East  Oregon  is  marked  with  greater  extremes  of 
temperature  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the  state.  Winter  begins  late  in 
December,  and  lasts  about  three  months.  The  high  Cascade  Range 
shuts  out  the  moist  winds  of  the  Pacific.  While  the  annual  rain-fall  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  is  about  60  inches,  in  East  Oregon  it  is 
only  from  15  to  20  inches.  Snow  falls  to  the  depth  of  6  to  12  inches 
in  the  valleys,  but  is  much  deeper  in  the  high  mountain  regions.  Con- 
siderable rain  falls  in  the  spring.  During  the  summer  there  is  very 
little  rain  or  dew.  Occasionally  the  thermometer  rises  during  the 
day  to  100°;  but  even  then  the  heat  is  not  oppressive,  owing  to  the 
dryness  of  the  atmosphere  ;  the  nights  are  cool.  In  the  high  Klamath 
valley,  4200  feet,  the  deep  snows  lie  from  three  to  five  months,  and 
frost  occurs  in  every  month  of  the  year. 

Forests.  —  The  forests  constitute  one  of  the  most  important  re- 
sources of  the  state.  They  extend  along  the  whole  coast  region,  and 
from  15  to  20  miles  into  the  interior,  except  where  broken  by  the 
prairies  in  the  valleys.  They  are  most  dense  where  exposed  to  the 
ocean  winds.  They  are  also  found  along  the  Columbia  to  just  beyond 
the  Dalles,  and  clothe  the  slopes  of  the  Cascade  Range.  Even  in  East 
Oregon,  the  Blue  Mountains  and  their  principal  spurs  are  well-wooded. 


LUMBERING. 


Most  of  the  trees  are  evergreen  conifers  of  species  peculiar  to  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Trees  six  feet  through  the  trunk  are  veiy  common,  and  among  the  cedars  and 
hemlocks  are  many  that  are  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in  diameter  and  nearly  300 
feet  high.     Some  of  these  species  furnish  ship  timber  of  the  highest  quality. 

Animals.— Among  the  wild  animals  a're  the  grizzly  bear,  black  bear, 
cougar,  gray  wolf,  coyote,  mountain-sheep,  elk,  deer,  and  antelope.  The 
eagle,  buzzard,  vulture,  swan,  goose,  duck,  albatross,  and  gull  are  the 
principal  birds,  and  the  salmon,  cod,  halibut,  sturgeon,  herring,  and 
smelt  the  most  important  fishes.     Lobsters,  oysters,  and  clams  abound. 

Minerals.— The  development  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  Oregon  has, 
as  yet,  scarcely  begun.  There  are  extensive  deposits  of  gold,  silver, 
lead,  copper,  iron,  salt,  coal,  marble,  granite,  soapstone,  slate,  clay,  glass- 
sand,  and  other  minerals. 

Agriculture.— Agriculture  is  the  leading  interest  of  the  state.  The 
chief  staple  is  wheat.  The  yield  is  large  and  of  excellent  quality. 
The  greater  part  is  raised  in  the  Willamette  valley.  Many  millions 
of  bushels  are  annually  exported.  There  are  also  large  crops  of  bar- 
ley, oats,  potatoes,  fruits,  and  garden  vegetables.  Cattle-raising  and 
sheep-farming  are  also  important  branches  of  industry,  the  large  wool 
crop  of  Oregon  ranking  among  the  best  in  the  world. 

Principal  Mineral  and  Agricultural  Products  in  1879. 


Gold  and  silver $l,3(K),n(K) 

Wheat  (bushels) 6,IK)o,IW0 

Barley          "        S.'M.niin 

Oats             "        3,S(Xl,(m 

Potatoes     "       

Butter  "       


Wool  (pounds) 6,000,000 

Hay  (tons) 200,0(10 

Horses  110,000 

Cattle S.'io.OOO 

800,000  I  Sheep 1,500,000 

3,000,000  1  Swme 175^000 


Manufactures. — In  the  production  and  exportation  of  flour  and  lum- 
ber Oregon  already  holds  a  high  rank.  Among  other  articles  largely 
produced  are  canned  goods,  woollens,  salmon  oil,  packed  beef  and  pork, 
tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine. 

Fisheries. — The  neighboring  ocean  furnishes  an  abundance  of  oys- 
ters, cod,  and  halibut.  The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Columbia  are  the 
most  extensive  in  the  world. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  commerce  of  Oregon  is  already  an  element 
of  importance  in  the  prosperity  of  the  state.  From  ports  on  the  Co- 
lumbia and  the  Willamette,  many  vessels  sail  every  year  to  Great  Britain, 
China,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  South  America,  New  Zealand,  and  Aus- 
tralia, loaded  with  wheat,  flour,  wool,  ship- timber,  canned  goods,  and 
other  products.  A  large  export  and  import  trade  is  carried  on  through 
San  Francisco,  and  there  is  an  extensive  general  coasting  trade  with 
California,  Puget  Sound,  British  Columbia,  and  Alaska.  The  navigable 
rivers  furnish  cheap  transportation  for  hundreds  of  miles  through  rich 
farming,  lumbering,  and  mineral  regions. 

Columbia  River  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  to  Portland,  on  the  Willamette, 
112  miles  from  the  sea,  and  to  Vancouver,  about  the  same  distance.  Vessels 
of  200  to  300  tons  ascend  to  the  head  of  tide-water  at  the  Cascades,  ICO  miles 
fiom  the  mouth.  Here  is  a  railroad  portage  of  six  miles.  Beyond  this,  the 
river  is  navigable  forty  miles,  to  the  Dalles,  where  there  is  a  second  railroad 
portage.  Above  this  point,  small  steamers  ascend  Snake  River  to  Lewiston, 
in  Idaho,  470  miles,  and  the  main  river  to  Priest  Rapids,  in  Washington  Ter- 
ritory, 39G  miles  from  the  sea.  When  engineering  skill  shall  have  overcome 
these  and  a  few  minor  obstacles,  the  Columbia  may  be  ascended  far  into 
British  Columbia,  at  least  1000  miles  from  the  ocean. 

On  the  Willamette,  small  steamers  run  to  Salem  all  the  year,  and  to  Eugene 
City,  138  miles  from  Portland,  during  high  water.  At  Oregon  City  the  river 
falls  40  feet  over  a  ledge  of  rocks.  Locks  have  here  been  constructed,  at 
great  expense,  so  as  to  allow  direct  passage  to  these  vessels.  There  are 
other  navigable  streams,  but  none  so  important. 

The  internal  commerce  is  further  assisted  by  a  system  of  railways.  The  most 
important  railroad  in  the  state  is  the  Oregon  and  California,  from  East  Port- 
land southwards  to  Roseburg,  in  Umpqua  valley,  200  miles.  Thence  stages 
run  to  Reading,  in  California,  on  the  California  and  Oregon  Railroad.  The 
Oregon  Central  Raihoad  is  on  the  west  side  of  Willamette  River,  and  runs 
from  Portland  to  Corvallis,  in  Benton  County,  !)7  miles.  The  Northern  Pa- 
cific Railroad  from  IJuluth,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  to  Columbia  River 
and  Puget  .Sound,  and  now  under  construction,  though  it  will  not  enter  this 
state,  will  greatly  influence  its  development. 

Political  Organization. — The  executive  officers  of  the  state  are  a 
Governor,  Secretary  of  State,  a  Treasurer  of  State,  and  a  Superintend- 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   OREGON. 


15 


ent  of  Public  Instruction,  who  hold  office  for  four  years  each.     The 
Secretary  of  State  is  also,  ex  officio,  Auditor  of  Public  Accounts. 

The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  Legis- 
lative Assembly,  which  comprises  a  Senate  of 
thirty  members,  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  sixty  members.  The  term  of  a  Sena- 
tor is  four  years,  that  of  a  Representative 
two  years.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a 
Supreme  Court,  Circuit  Courts,  County  Courts, 
and  Justice's  Courts.  All  the  e.xecutive  of- 
ficers, legislators,  and  judges  are  elected  by  the 
people.    Oregon  is  represented  in  Congress  by 

two  Senators  and  one  Representative,  and  has,  therefore,  three  elec- 
toral votes. 

The  state  comprises  twenty-three  counties  and  contains  the  follow- 
ing cities  and  towns : 

Portland,  in  Multnomah  County,  is  the  commercial  metropo- 
lis of  the  Columbia  valley,  and  the  largest  city  in  Oregon.  It  is 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Willamette,  about  1  3  miles  from  its  junction 
with  the  Columbia,  and  at  the  head  of  ship  navigation.  It  was 
founded  in  1844,  and  became  a  city  in  1855.     Population,  17,578. 

I'ortl.ind  is  built  on  a  plateau,  from  the  higher  parts  of  which  fine  views  are 
])resentecl  of  the  city  and  its  shipping,  and  the  fartns  and  groves  of  the  broad 
and  fertile  Willamette  valley. 

Its  manufacturing  establishments  in- 
clude fonnderies,  saw  and  planing 
mills,  and  soap,  carriage,  furniture, 
and  other  factories. 

It  is  the  shipping  point  for  the  large 
wheat  crop  of  the  Willamette  valley, 
to  which  is  added  a  great  and  rapid- 
ly increasing  amount  from  far  uj)  the 
Columbia.  Ocean  steamers  and 
sailing-vessels  carry  on  a  direct  ex- 
port and  import  trade  with  Great 
liritain,  China,  Japan,  New  Zealand, 
and  Australia,  and  regular  lines  of 
coasting-vessels  run  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, Victoria  in  Uritish  Columbia, 
the  various  ports  on  Puget  Sound,  and  to  Sitka  in  Alaska. 

It  is  also  an  important  railroad  centre.  It  is  the  northern  terminus  of  the  Ore- 
gon Central  Railroad,  and  is  connected  by  ferries  with  E.ast  Portland,  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Oregon  and  California  Railroad.  When  completed,  these  two 
roads  will  connect  the  railway  system  of  Oregon  wiih  that  of  California. 
Steamers  run  to  Kalama,  in  Washington  Territory,  and  there  connect  with 
the  Pacific  division  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  and  points  on  I'uget 
.Sound. 

Portland  has  an  efficient  system  of  public  schools,  including  high, 
intermediate,  and  graminar  grades,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Medical  De- 
partment of  the  Willamette  University. 

Salem,  in  Marion  County,  ife  the  capital  of  the  state.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Oregon  and  California  Railroad  and  the  east  bank  of  Willamette 
River.  Steamers  run  regularly  from  this  point  to  Portland  during 
about  three  fourths  of  the  year.  Mill  Creek  furnishes  a  great  water- 
power.  There  are  several  large  mills  producing  woollen  goods,  flour, 
and  linseed-oil.  There  are  also  machine-shops,  tanneries,  founderies, 
etc.     The  city  is  the  seat  of  Willamette  University.     Population,  4100. 


Albany— in  Linn  County,  on  California  and  Oregon 
Kaiiroad,  and  on  the  east  bank  ol  the  Willa- 
mette. .Shipping  port.  In  a  rich  agricultural 
section.  A  canal  lii  tniles  long  and  -iXt  feet 
wide  brings  the  water  ot  South  Saiitiani  River 
for  manulacturing  purposes.  Saw,  planing, 
and  flouring  mills ;  machine-shops ;  sash  and 
door,  carriage  and  wagon  factories.  Eleva- 
tors and  grain  warehouses.    Population,  1867. 

Astoria  — in  Clatsop  County,  at  mouth  of  the 
Columbia.  Important  seaport.  Headquar- 
ters of  the  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Colum- 
bia. Summer  resort.  Great  facilities  for  lum- 
bering and  sliip-biiilding.     Population,  iS(l3. 

Baker  Tity — in  llaker  County,  on  south  fork  of 
I'owder  River.     In  a  fertile  valley.     Large 


trade  with  mining  and  agricultural  districts. 
Population,  8;i.). 

Canon  ility— in  Grant  County,  on  John  Day  Riv- 
er. At  base  of  Blue  Mountains,  in  rich  gold- 
mining  region.     Population,  4TU. 

Corrallis— in  Henton  County,  on  Oregon  Central 
Railroad,  and  west  bank  of  the  Willamette. 
A  trading  and  manufacturing  centre.  Name 
means  "  Heart  of  the  Valley."  In  fine  firm- 
ing region.  Seat  of  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege.    Poiiulation,  1 12S. 

Dallas  —  in  Polk  County,  on  La  Creole  Creek. 
Many  maiuifaciuring  establishments.  Leath- 
er, wagons,  flour,  etc.     Population,  .^76. 

The  Dalles— in  Wflsco  County,  on  Columbia  River, 
at  Upper  Cascade  Rapids.     River  narrowed 


here  to  a  width  of  200  feet  between  walls  of 
rock.  Railroad  portage  of  1J5  miles  to  Celilo, 
at  the  head  of  the  Rapids.  Unlimited  water- 
power.  Trade  centre  for  eastern  Oregon  and 
Idaho.     Population,  "iS^-J. 

East  Portland  — in  Multnomah  County.  Termi- 
nus of  Oregon  .and  California  Railroad.  On 
Willamette  River,  opposite  Portland.  Beau- 
tiful residences,  extensive  warehouses,  facto- 
ries, machine-shops,  etc.     Population,  2401). 

Empire  City- -in  Coos  County,  on  Coos  Bay,  five 
miles  from  the  ocean.  Fine  harbor.  Depot 
and  shipping  point  for  lumber,  coal,  and  fish. 
Ship-building.     Population,  'tUd, 

Eugene  City  — in  Lane  County,  on  Oregon  and  Cal- 
ifornia Railroad  and  left  bank  of  WillaineUe. 
River  navigable  to  this  point.  Ships  an  im- 
mense amount  of  agricultural  products.  Seat 
of  State  University.     Population,  1117. 

Forest  Orove^in  Washington  County,  on  Oregon 
Central  Railroad,  and  in  the  fertile  Tu.alatin 
Plains.  Seat  of  Pacific  Universitv  and  Tu- 
alatin Academy.      Population,  S(j.S. 

Jacksonville — in  Jackson  County,  on  Bear  Creek, 
and  on  chief  stage  route  between  Oregon 
and  California.  Principal  town  in  southern 
Oregon,  and  centre  of  trade  of  a  great  and 
fertile  valley.    Gold  and  silver  mines  of  great 


and  permanent  value.  Veins  of  copper  and 
magnetic  iron  ore.     Population,  83S. 

McMinnville— in  Yamhill  County,  on  south  fork  of 
Yamhill  River.  Seat  of  McMinnville  Col- 
lege.    Population,  072. 

Oregon  City— in  Clackamas  County,  on  east  bank 
of  Willamette  River  and  on  Oregon  and  Cal- 
ifornia Railroad.  River  here  flows  through 
a  deep  canon.  Chief  part  of  the  city  is  in 
the  caiion.  River  made  navigable  for  steam- 
ers by  a  series  of  costly  locks  on  opposite 
bank.  Mills  for  manufacture  of  flour  and 
lumber.  Woollen-mills  noted  for  their  excel- 
lent product.     Population,  1  l.^fi. 

Pendleton— in  Umatilla  County,  on  Umatilla  River 
and  the  great  eastern  stage  route.  Sever.d 
lari;e  agricultural  valleys  radiate  from  this 
point.     Population,  512. 

Uoscbnrg— in  Douglas  County,  on  east  bank  of 
Umpqua  River,  at  termination  of  Oregon  and 
California  Railroad.  Stages  to  Reading,  Cal- 
ifornia, 'z7.'i  miles,  and  to  Coos  liay,  C5  miles. 
Grain  and  wool  market.     Population,  8(14. 

Umatilla — in  Umatiila  County,  on  the  Columbia. 
P'reight  depot  for  mining  districts  in  eastern 
Oregon  and  Idaho.  Lines  of  river  steamers. 
Numerous  stage  routes.  Large  shipments, 
of  wool.     Population,  600. 


Education. — The  State  Board  of  Education  consists  of  the  Gov- 
ernor, the  Secretary  of  State,  and  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction. County  superintendents  and  boards  of  district  officers  are 
elected  by  the  people. 

History. — The  coasts  of  Oregon  and  Washington  were  probably  first 
visited,  by  Spanish  navigators,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centu- 
ry. In  1592  Juan  de  Fuca,  a  Greek  commanding  a  small  Spanish 
vessel,  entered  the  strait  which  still  bears  his  name.  In  1775  a 
Spanish  expedition  was  the  first  to  reach  the  58th  degree  of  north 
latitude.  In  1778  the  celebrated  English  navigator  Captain  Cook  sailed 
along  the  western  coast  of  America  a  distance  of  more  than  2000  miles 
and  minutely  explored  the  shores  of  Washington  and  of  British  Co- 
lumbia.    He  was  followed,  in  1792,  by  Vancouver. 

In  1791  Captain  Robert  Gray,  an  American  fur-trader  command- 
ing the  ship  Colmnbia,  of  Boston,  entered  and  partly  explored  a  great 
river,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  his  ship.  The  purchase  of 
Louisiana  in  1803,  and  the  report  of  the  important  discovery  made  by 
Captain  Gray,  led  the  United  States  government  to  send  out  an  explor- 
ing expedition  under  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke.  'J'hey  ascended 
the  Missouri  to  its  source,  and  thence  passed  over  into  the  valley  of 
the  Columbia,  which  they  descended  to  the  sea  in  1805. 

In  1810  John  Jacob  Astor,  of  New  York,  organized  the  Pacific  Fur 
Company,  which,  in  181 1,  established  a  trading  settlement  at  Astoria, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river.  During  the  war  of  1812-15  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Great  Britain,  but  was  restored  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war. 
In  1819  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  the  United  States,  together  with  "all 
rights,  claims,  and  pretensions  to  any  territory  north  of  the  parallel  of 
42°,  and  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean." 

Upon  the  explorations  of  Cook,  Vancouver,  and  others,  Great  Britain 
claimed  the  west  coast  between  42°  and  the  Russian  possessions  in 
Alaska.  The  United  States  laid  its  claim  to  a  large  part  of  the  same 
region  upon  the  discoveries  of  Gray,  the  explorations  of  Lewis  and 
Clarke,  the  establishment  of  Astoria,  and  the  acquisition  of  the  rights 
of  Spain.  In  1846,  after  a  prolonged  and  threatening  controversy, 
a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  established  the  northern  boundary  -  line 
as  it  now  exists. 

In  1843  and  1844  large  bodies  of  emigrants  from  the  Missouri 
entered  Oregon  after  a  perilous  overland  journey,  and  liberal  grants  of 
land  subsequently  attracted  still  larger  numbers.  The  Territory  of  Ore- 
gon was  organized  in  1848.  In  1857  a  state  constitution  was  adopted. 
On  the  14th  of  February,  1859,  Congress  admitted  Oregon  as  a  state 
with  its  present  limits. 


Questions. — Describe  the  situation  of  Oregon.  The  surface.  The  drainage. 
Climate.  Forests.  Aniinals.  Minerals.  Agriculture.  Manufactures.  Fisheries. 
Commerce.  Political  organization.  Describe  Portland.  What  is  said  of  education? 
Of  the  history  of  Oregon. 


16 


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18 


GEOGRAPHY    OF   WASHINGTON. 


cougar,  wolf,  elk,  deer,  mountain -sheep,  beaver,  otter,  and  fox  ;  among 
the  birds,  the  hawk,  eagle,  crane,  plover,  grouse,  swans,  geese,  and  ducks. 
The  waters  swarm  with  fish,  the  most  valuable  of  which  are  the  salmon, 
cod,  halibut,  herring,  and  sturgeon.  On  the  coast  and  arms  of  the  sea 
are  whales  and  seals,  besides  lobsters,  clams,  and  oysters. 

Minerals. — The  mineral  resources  are  as  yet  but  little  developed, 
but  they  are  already  known  to  be  very  valuable  and  in  great  variety. 
The  bars  and  banks  of  the  Columbia  and  its  tribut.iries  for  a  period 
furnished  a  large  amount  of  gold,  but  the  product  has  greatly  dimin- 
ished. The  deposits  of  coal  are  very  extensive  and  of  great  value. 
It  is  extensively  mined  at  Bellingham  Bay,  Seattle,  Lake  Washington, 
and  other  localities,  and  already  constitutes  an  important  article  of 
export  to  San  Francisco  and  other  markets. 

Agriculture.  —  Much  of  the  forest  land  is  exceedingly  fertile,  and, 
when  cleared  of  timber,  highly  productive.  There  are  also  large  tracts 
of  prairie  and  of  other  open  land  which  have  a  rich  soil,  and  are  ready 
for  the  farmer.  'J'hey  are  mostly  in  the  valleys.  The  agricultural 
lands  of  the  territory  are  capable  of  supporting  a  dense  populaiion. 
Large  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  rye,  and  of  potatoes,  turnips, 
and  other  vegetables,  are  produced  ;  and  fruits,  such  as  apples,  pears, 
plums,  and  cherries,  are  of  excellent  quality. 

In  East  Washington  much  of  the  land  in  the  Columbia  valley  is 
suitable  for  agriculture,  and  a  much  larger  quantity  is  remarkably  well 
fitted  for  the  raising  of  sheep  and  cattle.     The  climate  is  not  severe, 

and  the  nutritious  bunch- 
grass  furnishes  an  abun- 
dance of  food  throughout 
the  year.  In  some  parts 
peaches  and  Indian -corn 
thrive.  But  the  chief  staple 
is  wheat.  In  Walla  Walla 
and  Columbia  counties,  and 
the  parts  adjacent,  an  an- 
nual surplus  crop  of  be- 
tween two  and  three  mill- 
ions of  bushels  is  exported, 
and  the  quantity  is  rapidly 
increasing  year  by  year.  It 
is  estimated  that  this  por- 
tion of  the  territory  is  ca- 
pable of  furnishing  an  an- 
nual supply  of  between  forty 
and  fifty  millions  of  bushels. 
Manufactures. — The  chief 


manufactures  are  lumber  and  flour.  The  annual  export  of  lumber  ex- 
ceeds 250,000,000  of  feet,  and  is  valued  at,  at  least,  two  and  a  half 
millions  of  dollars.     Most  of  it  is  made  in  the  Puget  Sound  region. 

Fisheries.  —  The  fisheries  are  of  considerable  importance.  The 
chief  products  are  salmon,  barrelled  and  canned,  cod,  and  oysters. 
The  chief  salmon  fisheries  are  on  the  Columbia,  near  its  mouth. 

Commerce. — The  extraordinary  extent  of  protected  navigation  on 
Puget  Sound  and  its  adjacent  waters,  the  great  number  of  excellent 


SCENE  ON   COLUMBIA   KIVEK. 


TACOMA,  OR    MOUNT   RAINIER. 

harbors,  and  the  numerous  navigable  rivers  give  easy  access  to  a  very 
large  part  of  the  territory,  and  an  abundance  of  the  cheapest  form  of 
transportation.  The  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  will  soon  furnish  direct 
and  rapid  communication  between  Puget  Sound  and  the  Great  Lakes 
and  Mississippi  valley.  Its  western  division — from  Kalama,  on  the  Co- 
lumbia, to  Tacoma,  on  Puget  Sound,  105  miles — is  already  completed. 

Besides  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  other  railroads  in  the  territory  are 
the  Walla  Walla  and  Columbia,  from  Walla  Walla  to  Wallula,  32  miles, 
a  portage  road  at  Cascades,  and  short  roads  from  tide-water  on  Puget 
Sound  to  the  coal-mines  in  King  and  Pierce  counties. 

The  domestic  commerce  is  chiefly  with  San  Francisco.  An  im- 
mense amount  of  lumber  is  exported,  together  with  coal,  fish,  grain, 
provisions,  and  live-stock.  The  coal  and  lumber  are  chiefly  from  Puget 
Sound  ;  the  grain  is  from  Walla  Walla  and  Columbia  counties,  the 
richest  and  most  populous  in  the  territory. 

Political  Organization. — The  chief  executive  officers  of  the  territory 
are  the  Governor  and  Secretary,  who  are  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  Their  terms  are 
four  years  each.  There  are  also  an  Auditor  and  a  Treasurer,  who 
are  appointed  by  the  Governor  arid  Council  for  terms  of  two  years  each. 

The  legislature  consists  of  the  Council  of  nine  members  and  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  thirty  members. 

The  judicial  power  is  exercised  by  the  Supreme  Court,  the  judges 
of  which  are  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  of  the  United 
States,  and  serve  for  four  years  each.  There  are  also  District  Courts, 
County  Probate  Courts,  and  Justice's  Courts.  The  legislators,  probate 
judges,  and  justices  are  elected  by  the  people. 

The  territory  comprises  twenty-six  counties.  The  three  most  pop- 
ulous districts  are  Puget  Sound,  the  Walla  Walla  valley,  and  the  lower 
part  of  the  Columbia  valley.  There  are  seven  large  Indian  reserva- 
tions, and  an  Indian  population  of  about  4000.  They  comprise  about 
40  small  tribes. 

Though  there  are  as  yet  no  large  towns  in  Washington,  some  of  those  given  in 
the  following  list  aie  already  important  centres,  and  give  promise  of  continued 
and  rapid  advance  in  population  and  wealth. 

Olympia,  in  Thurston  County,  is  the  capital  of  the  territory,  and  is 
one  of  its  most  enterprising  towns.  It  is  the  terminus  of  an  important 
branch  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  and  is  advantageously  situated 
on  Budds  Inlet,  the  most  southerly  arm  of  Puget  Sound.  It  is  200  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  80  miles  south  of  Port  Townsend,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  sound.     It  has  a  remarkable  harbor.     Owing  to  the  peculiar  con 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   WASHINGTON. 


19 


formation  of  the  shores,  the  tide  here  rises  and  falls  about  24  feet. 
•  This  affords  unusual  advantages  for  the  construction  of  dry  docks,  and 
for  the  repair  of  shipping. 

Olympia  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of  forest-clad  hills  and 
mountains.  On  one  side  is  the  snow-capped  Mount  Olympus,  and  on 
the  other  the  lofty  Mount  Rainier  lifts  its  summit  above  the  clouds. 
The  whole  presents  a  view  of  mountain  and  valley,  land  and  water, 
remarkable  for  its  beauty  and  variety.  In  and  around  the  city  are  fine 
orchards  which  add  greatly  to  its  attractiveness.  About  a  mile  to  the 
south  are  the  Falls  of  Tumwater,  three  beautiful  cascades,  where  the 
Des  Chutes  falls  to  the  lower  level  of  the  sea.     Population,  1232. 

Kalama,  in  Cowlitz  County,  is  on  the  bank  of  the  Columbia,  77  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  is  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad.  A 
wharf  700  feet  long  presents  facilities  for  the  largest  vessels.  Lines  of 
steamers  run  to  Portland  and  other  points  on  the  Willamette  and  Columbia. 
Excellent  coal  is  mined  near  the  town.  The  canning  of  salmon  is  one  of  the 
local  industries.  Kalama  possesses  excellent  water-power. 
Port  Townsf.xd  in  Jefferson  County,  is  commercially  the  most  important 
town  in  Washington.  It  is  the  port  of  entry  for  the  territory.  The  United 
States  Custom-house  and  the  Marine  Hospital  are  located  here.  It  is  sixty- 
five  miles  from  the  ocean,  on  a  fine  harbor  at  the  point  where  Puget  Sound 
unites  with  the  Strait  of  Fuca.  The  chief  business  section  is  built  on  a 
beach  ;  the  churches,  schools,  and  most  of  the  private  residences  are  on  a 
bluff  overlooking  the  bay.  Lines  of  steamers  run  to  all  ports  in  the  neigh- 
boring waters,  including  Victoria  and  other  points  in  British  Columbia. 
The  local  resources  include  forests  of  pine,  spruce,  and  fir,  and  a  great 
abundance  and  variety  of  fish.  There  are  also  extensive  sandstone  quarries, 
from  which  excellent  building-stone  is  shipped  to  San  Francisco  and  other 
ports.  Population,  980. 
SEATtLE,  in  King  County,  is  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  Pnget  Sound  on  El- 
liot Bay,  at  the  month  of  Dwainish  River.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor  and 
other  commercial  advantages.  There  are  extensive  and  valuable  beds  of  iron- 
ore  in  the  vicinity,  and  rich  deposits  of  coal.  The  latter  mineral  is  largely 
shipped,  and  a  great  amount  of  lumber  is  manufactured.  Lake  Washington, 
about  two  and  a  half  miles  to  the  east,  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  fresh  water  about 
twenty  miles  long.  The  coal-mines  are  on  its  banks.  Seattle  is  the  seat 
of  Territorial  University.  Population,  3533. 
Tacoma,  in  Pierce  County,  is  situated  on  Commencement  Bay,  an  eastern  arm 
of  Puget  Sound,  and  is  the  ocean  terminus  of  the  western  division  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad.  Its  harbor  covers  four  square  miles,  is  perfectly 
safe,  and  is  deep  enough  for  the  largest  ocean  ships.  Its 
chief  present  business  is  the  manufacture  and  shipment  of 
lumber  from  the  adjacent  forests.  The  city  has  been  laid  out 
on  a  splendid  and  extensive  plan,  of  which  the  site  is  well 
worthy.  It  embraces  three  successive  terraces,  which  slope 
towards  the  harbor  and  affords  fine  views  of  the  bay,  the 
sound,  and  the  surrounding  country,  and  insure  coinplete 
drainage.  Five  miles  to  the  south  are  the  Nisqually  Plains, 
which  are  about  twelve  miles  square,  and  contain  a  number 
of  beautiful  lakes.  These  plains  lie  about  150  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  are  a  grand  and  lovely  natural  park.  The  relation 
of  this  city  to  the  great  transcontinental  railroad,  and  the  other 
commercial  advantages  of  its  situation,  have  led  to  the  antici- 


pation that  it  will  in  time  become  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  the 
Pacific  coast.     Population,  1 1 13. 

Vancouver,  in  Clarke  County,  is  situated  on  the  Columbia,  about  100  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  territory,  and  was  settled 
as  a  station  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  in  1824.  The  river  is  here  a  mile 
wide,  and  the  port  admits  the  largest  vessels.     Population,  800. 

Wai.la  Wali.a,  in  Walla  Walla  County,  is  situated  on  a  river  of  the  same 
name.  It  is  the  largest  town  in  the  territory,  and  is  the  chief  depot  of  one  of 
the  richest  agricultural  districts  of  the  Pacific  Coast  region.  From  this  point 
excellent  roads  radiate  in  every  direction  to  the  mining  and  grazing  regions. 
It  ships  a  great  amount  of  wheat  and  wool.     Population,  3588. 


Cascades— in  Skamania  County.  Point  of  transfer 
of  cargoes  by  railroad  portage  of  six  miles  to 
the  head  of  the  first  rapids  River  here  con- 
tracts to  a  cliannel  about  2t)0  feet  wide. 

Colfax — in  Whitman  County.  Centre  of  trade  for 
rich  agricultural  resion,  and  an  immense 
grazing  country.     Population,  462. 

Dayton  —  in  Columbia  County,  on  chief  road  to 
Lewiston,  Idaho.  Large  trade  with  farming 
and  grazing  country.  Woollen,  sawing  and 
planing,  and  flouring  mills.    Population,  964. 

Oysterville  -  in  Pacific  County,  on  narrow  penin- 
sula between  Shoalwater  Bay  and  the  ocean. 
Large  oyster  trade.     Other  fisheries. 

Steilacoom— in  Pierce  County,  near  the  head  of 
Puget  Sound.     Four  miles  from  North  Pa- 


cific Railroad.  Large  export  of  beer,  ship- 
knees,  lumber,  wool,  fish,  flour,  and  grain. 

Tnmwater -in  Thurston  County,  on  Budds  Inlet, 
at  mouth  of  Des  Chutes  River.  River  falls 
about  SO  feet  in  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 
Great  water-power.  Flour  and  saw  mills, 
sash  ancT  door  factories,  and  many  others. 
Population,  200. 

Wallula  — in  Walla  Walla  County,  on  Columbia 
River.  Important  shipping  point  for  Walla 
Walla  valley,  and  terminus  of  railroad  from 
Walla  Walla.  Post  of  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany in  1820. 

Whatcom — in  Whatcom  County,  on  east  shore  ot 
Bellingham  Bay,  near  the  national  boundary- 
line.     Ships  coal  and  timber. 


Among  other  places  of  considerable  itnportance  in  the  Puget  Sound  district  are 
Blakely,  Port  M.adison,  and  Port  Gamble,  in  Kitsap  County  ;  San  Juan,  in  San 
Juan  County ;  and  Snohomish  City,  in  Snohomish  County  ;  on  the  Lower 
Columbia,  Cathlamet,  in  Wahkiakum  County ;  Waitsburg,  in  Colutnbia 
County;  Yakiina,  in  Yakima  County;  and  Fort  Colville,  on  the  Upper  Co- 
lumbia, in  Stevens  County. 

Education. — The  public  schools  are  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  appointed  by  the  Governor  and 
Council  for  two  years  ;  County  Superintendents,  elected  in  each  county; 
and  School  District  Directors.  The  Territorial  University  is  located 
at  Seattle.  Forty-six  thousand  and  eighty  acres  of  the  public  lands 
were  assigned  by  the  United  States  government  for  its  establishment 
and  support.  One  eighteenth  of  all  the  public  land  in  the  territory, 
about  3000  square  miles,  is  set  aside  for  school  purposes,  but  cannot 
be  sold  until  the  territory  becomes  a  state. 

History. — The  Territory  of  Washington  was  organized  by  act  of 
Congress,  March  2, 1  85.3.  Previous  to  this  it  formed  a  part  of  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Oregon.  In  18.59,  when  Oregon  be- 
came a  state,  the  eastern  part  of  the  territory  of 
that  name  was  annexed  to  Washington.  Subse- 
quently Idaho  and  a  part  of  Wyoming  were  cut 
off  from  Washington. 

The  first  American  settlement  was  made  at 
Tumwater,  in   1845,  by  a  few  families  who  had 
made  the  long  and  perilous  journey  across  "  The 
Plains."     Before  this  its  only  white  inhabitants 
were  the  employes  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Fur  Com- 
pany of    Great    Britain.     The    treaty   of 
1 846  between  that  country  and  the  United 
^         States  contained  a  clause  in  relation  to  the  national  boundary- 
line  the  meaning  of  which  was  disputed.     After  a  long  contro- 
versy the  matter  was  referred,  by  both  governments,  to  the  ar- 
bitration of  the  German  emperor,  who,  in  1872,  decided  that  the 
boundary-line  ran,  not  through  Rosario  Strait,  but  through  the 
Canal  de  Haro.    By  this  decision  the  islands  between  these  two 
straits  were  awarded  to  the  United  States.     In  1873  they  were 
politically  organized  as  San  Juan  County.     In  1879  the  people 
of  Washington  decided,  by  popular  vote,  to  establish  a  state  con- 
stitution, and  within  a  brief  period  the  Territory  will,  without 
doubt,  become  the  State  of  Washington. 


SEAL  OF  WASHINGTON. 


SAW-MILL. 


Questions.  —  Describe  the  situation  of  Washington  Territory.  The 
surface.  Coast.  Drain.age.  Climate.  Forests.  Animals.  Minerals.  Ag- 
riculture. Manufacttues.  Fisheries.  Political  organization.  Describe 
Olympia.  What  is  said  of  education .'  Give  an  account  of  the  history  of 
Washington  Territory. 


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MAP    OF 

ARIZONA 


Scale  of  Miles. 

0      B    10  20  80  40  ffl  60 


Capital 0  Railroad 

County  Seat  ©  River 

City  or  Town o  Stag«  Routes 


Longitude    West  35         from    Wasliiiigton 


Copyright,  1881  6y  Ilarptf  S  BruAei 


SPECIAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF    ARIZONA. 


[Copyright,  IS80,  by  Habpeb  &  Beothkhs.] 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

What  territory  north  of  Arizona  ?  What  territory  east  ?  What 
country  south  ?     What  two  states  west  ? 

What  is  the  general  character  of  the  surface  of  Arizona?  What 
large  river  forms  most  of  the  western  boundary  of  the  territory  ? 
Through  what  part  of  the  territory  does  it  flow  ?  Name  the  three  chief 
branches  of  the  Colorado  in  Arizona.  Which  branch  crosses  the 
southern  part  of  the  territory?  What  river  flows  into  the  Gila  from 
the  south  ?  Name  one  other  branch  of  the  Gila.  What  river  flows 
into  Salt  River  from  the  north  ? 

Name  the  counties  of  Arizona.  What  three  counties  border  on 
Utah  ?  What  three  on  New  Mexico  ?  What  three  on  Mexico  ?  What 
two  on  California  and  Nevada  ?  What  two  counties  not  already  named 
are  crossed  by  Gila  River  ?     What  one  by  Salt  River  ? 

What  is  the  capital  of  Arizona  ?  What  town  northwest  of  Prescott  ? 
Southwest?  Name  five  towns  on  Colorado  River.  One  on  Salt  River. 
Three  on  or  near  Gila  River  ?  What  five  towns  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  territory  ?     What  three  in  the  southwestern  part  ? 


DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  ll.<i,916  square  miles.     Population  40,4-tl,  besides  over  20,000  Indians  on  the 

Reservations.] 

Situation. — Arizona  lies  between  the  parallels  of  31°  37'  and  37° 
north  latitude,  and  between  109°  3'  and  114°  25'  west  longitude.  Its 
surface  is  about  equal  to  the  combined  area  of  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and  Delaware. 

Surface. — Arizona  consists  of  a  series  of  successive  wide  plateaus, 
the  lowest  in  the  southwest,  the  highest  in  the  northeast.  The  highest 
part  comprises  the  southern  half  of  the  Colorado  Plateau  (see  page  24), 
which  covers  about  two  fifths  of  the  territory.  This  portion  of  Arizona 
consists  of  three  broad  benches  or  platforms,  the  MogoUon  Mountains 
fo'rm  the  steep  edge  of  the  lowest  bench. 

The  platforms,  which,  with  other  similar  elevations,  are  called  mesas,  have  an 
average  elevation  of  from  4000  to  0000  teet.  They  present  a  generally  level 
surface,  upon  which  stand  a  great  number  of  short  ranges,  isolated  peaks,  and 
bluffs.  Among  these  is  Humphrey's  Peal<,  in  the  San  Francisco  Mountains, 
a  snow-covered  volcanic  cone  12,5G1  feet  in  height.  It  is  the  highest  in 
Arizona. 


KOCKV   MESA  ON   THE  GILA. 


Into  these  platforms  the  Colorado  and  its  numerous  branches  have  cut  broad 
valleys  and  deep  canons,  whose  perpendicular  walls  rise  from  1000  to  3000  feet, 
and  in  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado  (see  page  (Jl)  GOOO  feet  to  the  gen- 
eral level  of  the  mesa.  These  valleys  are  filled  with  a  wild  confusion  of  gi- 
gantic buttes,  or  flat-topped  hills  with  perpendicular  sides,  castellated  rocks, 
and  rude  buttresses,  the  rugged  and  fantastic  remnants  of  the  numerous  strata 
of  rocks,  white,  brown,  gray,  buff,  red,  green,  and  vermilion,  which  have  been 
torn  away  by  the  action  of  water ;  the  whole  presenting  scenes  of  mingled 
beauty,  sublimity,  and  desolation  unsurpassed  on  the  globe. 

The  rest  of  the  territory  varies  greatly  in  elevation.  The  Colorado 
valley  near  Yuma  is  only  from  00  to  100  feet  above  the  sea.  In  the 
east  and  northwest  the  general  elevation  is  several  thousands  of  feet. 
The  plateaus  are  covered  with  numerous  parallel  ranges  of  mountains 
with  long,  intervening  valleys.  There  are  also  many  isolated  precipi- 
tous mesas  and  detached  mountain  groups.  In  the  high  eastern  re- 
gion are  beautiful  park-like  valleys. 

Arizona  has  numerous  e-xtensive  lava  fields  and  extinct  volcanoes.  The  prin- 
cipal fields  are  along  the  valley  of  the  Gila,  and  cover  many  thousands  of 
square  miles.  The  chief  volcanoes  form  an  irregular  line  on  the  Colorado 
Plateau  near  the  35th  parallel.  On  a  long  lava  stream  in  the  southwest  stands 
a  double  row  of  low  cones  with  numerous  craters. 

The  highest  peaks  of  the  White  and  the  Santa  Reta  Mountains,  and  Graham's 
Peak,  reach  an  elevation  of  over  10,000  feet. 

Drainage. — The  character  of  the  drainage  of  Arizona  is  remarkable. 
Hundreds  of  swift  streams  flow  at  the  bottom  of  deeply  eroded  canons, 
leaving  the  surface  of  the  country  arid  and  barren.  All  of  the  flowing 
waters  of  the  territory  fall  into  the  Colorado,  which  forms  the  western 
boundary. 

The  most  extraordinary  of  the  canons  are  along  this  stream.  Beginning  at  its 
great  bend  at  the  northwestern  corner  of  Arizona,  a  series  of  deep  gorges  ex- 
tends continuously  for  hundreds  of  miles,  and  far  beyond  the  northern  border 
of  the  territory.  The  swiftness  of  the  stream,  its  rocky  bed,  and  numerous 
rapids  render  navigation  impossible.  Many  of  the  tributary  streams  pass 
through  canons  scarcely  less  wonderful. 

The  most  important  tributary  is  the  Gila.  It  flows  from  New  Mex- 
ico entirely  across  the  territory.  Its  valley  is  the  only  important  de- 
pression across  the  Great  Western  Highland  from  Canada  to  Mexico. 
It  is  very  narrow  and  swift,  and  is  quite  shallow  during  most  of  the 

year.  In  the  rainy  season  it  brings 
down  an  immense  body  of  water.  It 
has  many  branches.  The  valley  of 
the  Santa  Cruz  furnishes  the  best 
route  into  Mexico. 

Climate. — The  large  and  varied  sur- 
face of  Arizona  presents  many  varie- 
ties of  climate.  In  the  Colorado  val- 
ley, and  especially  in  the  low  region 
near  Fort  Yuma,  the  summer  heat  is 
intense  and  long-continued,  sometimes 
reaching  118°.  The  average  rain-fall 
is  less  than  three  inches,  and  is  the 
least  in  the  United  States.  The  high 
regions  of  central  and  eastern  Arizona 
have  a  cool  and  delightful  summer  cli- 
mate. The  winter  is  mild.  Snow  falls, 
but  usually  disappears  in  a  few  hours, 
except  on  the  mountains.  This  region 
and  a  large  district  in  the  southeast 
have  abundant  rains.  In  the  upper 
part   of   the  Gila   valley   the   rain-fall 


22 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   ARIZONA. 


reaches  thirty-three  inches.  Most 
of  this  water  is  brought  by  winds 
from  the  Gulf  of  California. 

Vegetation.  —  Extensive  and 
heavy  forests  of  conifers,  com- 
prising pines,  cedars,  junipers, 
and  firs,  are  found  in  the  re- 
gions of  greatest  rain-fall — in  the 
mountain  districts  of  the  middle 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  territory. 

The  gveat  San  Francisco  forest 
covers  a  tract  about  3>50  miles 
long,  by  30  to  100  miles  broad. 
There  are  also  immense  dis- 
tricts in  the  middle  and  north- 
east, where  the  sides  of  moun- 
tains are  covered  with  nutri- 
tious grasses  which  furnish  un^ 
limited  pasturage.  Of  the  re- 
maining and  by  far  the  larger 
area  of  the  territory,  much  the 
greater  part  is  almost  destitute 
of  vegetation.  In  favonble 
places  along  the  streams,  iron- 
.wood,  mesquite,  and  cotton- 
wood  are  found,  and  upon  the 
desert  mesas,  the  sage  bush,  the 
prickly  pear,  and  giant  cactus. 

Minerals. — Although  the  min- 
eral treasures  of  Arizona  are  as 
yet  but  partly  explored,  it  is  al- 
ready known  that  in  variety  and 
value  they  are  not  excelled  by 
any  equal  area  of  the  Pacific 
Slope.  Gold  and  silver  mining 
is  the  leading  industry  of  the  ter- 
ritory. The  chief  silver  belt  is  a 
very  large  region,  and  a  much 
larger  district  abounds  in  copper  ores  of  remarkable  richness.  There 
are  extensive  deposits  of  salt.  The  coal-fields  are  of  inestimable  value, 
and  occupy  more  than  30,000  square  miles.  The  best-known  beds  are  in 
the  northeast,  where  some  of  the  veins  are  over  twenty  feet  in  thickness. 
Agriculture. — Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  land  of  Arizona  can 
be  profitably  cultivated. 

This  is  the  result  of  the  light  rain-fall  in  some  parts  and  the  extraordinary  char- 
acter of  the  drainage  in  others.  Nearly  the  whole  arable  land  lies  in  the 
lower  parts  of  the  chief  river  valleys,  especially  those  of  the  Gila  and  its 
branches,  the  Salt  and  the  Santa  Cruz.  Even  here  and  in  the  park -like 
valleys  of  the  high  eastern  border  the  land  must  be  irrigated  by  artesian  wells. 
Yet  so  extensive  is  the  territory  that  these  various  arable  lands  amount  to 
several  millions  of  acres.  The  agricultural  products  vary  with  the  climate, 
and  range  from  the  grain,  roots,  and  fruits  of  the  middle-temperate  to  those 
of  sub-tropical  regions. 

Commerce. — For  the  greater  part  of  the  territory  the  means  of  com- 
munication are  as  j'et  scanty.  The  Colorado  is  the  only  navigable 
stream.  Steamers  and  barges  ascend  to  Hardyville,  and  occasionally 
to  Callville,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Grand  Caiion.  It  is  the  chief  trade 
route  for  a  great  mineral  district.  The  Southern  Pacific  Railroad 
crosses  the  territory  south  of  the  Gila,  and  connects  a  large  region  with 
the  Pacific  ports  and  the  markets  of  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Union. 
The  leading  towns,  the  mining  camps,  and  the  military  stations  are 
connected  with  the  Colorado  and  the  railroad  by  a  system  of  stage  routes. 

Political  Organization. — The  territory  comprises  ten  counties. 

The  following  are  among  the  chief  towns,  but  many  additions  and  great  changes 
are  rapidly  made  by  new  and  increasing  immigration. 

Tucson,  in  Pima  County,  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  is  the 
largest  town  in  Arizona,  and  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  United  States. 


THK  GIANT   CACTUS. 


It  is  in  the  fertile  Santa  Cruz  valley,  the  best-known  part  of  Arizona, 
and  is  the  centre  of  many  stage  routes.  It  has  an  extensive  and  varied 
trade,  both  with  the  territory  and  with  northern  Mexico.  Cattle  are 
an  important  item.  The  altitude  of  Tucson  is  2.500  feet.  Population 
about  4500.     Tubac,  in  the  same  county,  is  an  old  settlement. 

Prescott,  in  Yavapai  County,  is  the  capital  of  the  territory.  It  is 
well  laid  out  and  well  built.  Its  altitude,  6318  feet,  gives  it  a  cool 
climate.  Light  snows  fall  in  the  winter,  but  not  enough  for  sleighing. 
Prescott  lies  in  a  small  valley  surrounded  by  high  ranges  which  contain 
good  grazing  and  timber  lands.    It  has  a  large  trade.    Population,  4000. 

Tombstone,  the  county  seat  of  Cachise  County,  is  surrounded  by  rich  silver- 
mines.  Since  little  or  no  snow  falls  here,  the  mines  can  be  worked  during 
the  entire  year.  The  mills  for  crushing  the  ore  are  situated  on  the  San 
Pedro,  ten  miles  distant.  Cattle-raising  is  also  a  profitable  industry  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Tombstone.     Population  about  4000. 

Yuma,  the  chief  town  of  Yuma  County,  is  on  the  Colorado,  178  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  20  miles  from  the  Mexican  boundary.  The  Southern  Pacific  Kail- 
road  here  crosses  the  Colorado.  The  town  has  an  extensive  business  with 
the  mining  districts  both  by  the  river  and  the  railroad.     Population,  2000. 

In  the  same  county,  and  on  the  Colorado,  are  Castle  Dome  City,  a  port  of  ship- 
ment for  ores  of  silver  and  copper,  and  Ehrenberg,  the  freight  depot  of  the 
mining  districts  near  Wickenburg  and  Prescott. 

Globe  City,  the  county  seat  of  Gila  County,  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  an 
important  mining  district  of  the  same  name,  east  of  the  Pinal  Mountains. 
Population  about  1000. 

PnoiNix,  in  Marcopa  County,  is  the  business  centre  of  Salt  River  valley  and 
of  neighboring  important  mining  districts.  Wickenburg,  in  the  same  county, 
is  among  the  silver-mines. 

Florence,  in  Pinal  County,  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district  in  the 
valley  of  the  Gila.  Small  streams  of  water  are  led  through  its  streets,  which 
are  planted  with  shade  trees.  It  has  stamping-mills  and  furnaces,  and  an 
extensive  trade  with  the  mines. 

Safford,  in  Graham  County,  on  Gila  River  is  a  place  of  growing  importance. 
Mineral  Park,  an  important  mining  centre,  and  Hardyville  and  Aubrey  City, 
in  Mohave  County,  are  points  of  shipment  on  the  Colorado. 

History. — The  part  of  Arizona  north  of  the  Gila  is  a  portion  of  the 
cession  made  by  Mexico  in  1848.  The  Gadsen  Purchase,  which  in- 
cludes the  portion  south  of  the  Gila,  was  made  in  1853.  On  the  24th 
of  February,  1863,  the  territory  was  organized.     The  numerous  hostile 

savages  and  the 
difficulty  of  ac- 
cess long  de- 
layed the  settle- 
ment of  the  coun- 
try. Within  a 
very  recent  peri- 
od these  obsta- 
cles have  been 
removed,  and  the 
territory  is  rapid- 
ly increasing  in 
population. 


CaRoN  of  SAN   FEUPPE. 


Questions. — De- 
scribe the  situation  of 
Arizona.  Its  surface. 
Drainage.  Climate. 
Vegetation.  Miner- 
als. What  is  said  of 
its  agriculture?  Com- 
merce ?  Describe  the 
political  organization. 
Describe  Tucson. 
Prescott.  Tombstone. 
Yuma.  Globe  City. 
Phoenix.  Florence. 
Give  an  outline  of 
the  history  of  Ari- 
'  zona. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF   NEVADA. 


23 


TIMBER   FLUME. 


[For  Map  Questions,  see  page  3.] 
[Area,  10-1,125  square  miles.     Population,  62,265.] 

Situation. — Nevada,  the  Silver  State,  is,  next  after  Texas  and  Cali- 
fornia, the  largest  in  the  Union.  It  lies  between  the  114th  and  120th 
meridians  of  west  longitude.  The  northern  boundary  is  the  42d  degree 
of  north  latitude.  The  southwestern  boundary  is  a  line  drawn  from  the 
intersection  of  the  39th  parallel  with  the  1 20th  meridian  to  the  point 
where  the  35th  parallel  crosses  Colorado  River.  The  boundary  of  the 
state  is  completed  by  a  line  which  follows  the  middle  of  that  great 
stream  to  where  it  crosses  the  114th  meridian. 

Surface. — Nearly  the  whole  area  of  Nevada  lies  in  the  Great  Basin. 
The  greater  part  of  the  surface  is  a  plateau,  from  4000  to  4500  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  is  ribbed  with  numerous  nearly  parallel  chains  of  moun- 
tains, which  rise  from  1000  to  8000  feet  higher,  and  lie  in  a  general 
north  and  south  direction.  Between  these  chains  are  equally  numerous 
valleys,  from  4000  to  6000  feet  in  elevation,  and  in  some  cases  more  than 
100  miles  long.  Their  width,  from  five  to  twenty  miles,  is  about  the 
same  as  that  of  the  bases  of  the  mountains.  Easy  passes  from  one 
valley  to  another  are  furnished  by  the  numerous  deep  ravines  by  which 
the  mountains  are  broken  through.  Valleys  occasionally  unite  with 
other  valleys,  or  expand  into  broad  plains  which  are  dotted  with  buttes 
or  with  groups  of  rugged  hills.  The  lowest  parts  of  the  Basin  are  in 
the  valleys  immediately  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  extreme 
southern  parts  of  Nevada  are  lower,  and  lie  outside  of  the  Basin,  in  the 
valleys  of  Colorado  and  Amargosa  rivers.  A  small  section  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  state  lies  in  the  valley  of  Snake  River,  a  great 
branch  of  the  Columbia. 

Brainage. — The  Owyhee  and  some  other  and  smaller  branches  of 
the  Snake,  and  the  Virgin,  a  branch  of  the  Colorado,  are  the  only 
streams  of  Nevada  whose  waters  reach  the  ocean.  By  far  the  greater 
part,  including  the  thousands  of  streams  formed  from  the  melted  snows 
of  the  mountains,  are  lost  by  evaporation  in  the  dry  air  of  the  Great 
Basin.  Excepting  the  Colorado,  all  the  rivers  are  small  and  unnaviga- 
ble.  Some  of  them  end  in  beautiful  lakes  ;  others  in  vast  shallow 
swamps  called  sloughs  or  sinks.  Many  disappear  by  sinking  into  the 
porous  soil,  and  reappear  at  lower  levels  a  few  miles  farther  on. 

Humboldt  River,  the  largest  in  tlie  state,  rises  in  the  high  northe.istern  plateau, 
and,  after  a  winding  course  of  about  .S50  miles,  reaches  the  lowest  part  of  the 


24 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   NEVADA. 


Great  Basin.  It  is  here  lost  in  the  Humboldt  and  Carson  Sink,  a  shallow 
lake  or  marsh  of  vast  extent,  its  waters  brackish  with  salt  and  soda.  Carson 
River,  a  large  stream  from  the  Sierra  Nevada,  loses  its  waters  partly  in  the 
same  sink  and  partly  in  Carson  Lake.  Bigler,  or  Tahoc,  is  a  fine  mountain 
lake  on  the  western  border  and  partly  within  the  state.  It  is  22  miles  long 
by  14  broad.  It  is  1500  feet  deep,  and  its  surface  about  GOOO  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  drained  by  Truckee  River,  whose  waters,  after  a  course  of 
about  1)0  miles,  flow  into  Pyramid  Lake.  This  is  another  fine  sheet  of  wa- 
ter, 33  miles  long  by  15  broad,  and  3000  feet  deep;  it  is  named  from  one 
of  its  islands,  a  singular  pyramidal  rock  about  fiOO  feet  high.  Walker 
River,  another  large  stream,  flows  into  Walker  Lake.  All  of  the  mountain 
streams  are  valuable  for  irrigation  or  for  water-power,  though  as  yet  but  lit- 
tle used. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  remarkably  healthy,  and  for  so  elevated  a 
region  singularly  mild  and  equable.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  state 
extreme  heat  or  cold  is  rare.  Snow  falls  upon  the  mountains  at  inter- 
vals from  November  to  May,  but  is  never  deep,  as  in  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
It  seldom  falls  in  the  valleys,  notwithstanding  their  elevation.  The 
summers  are  short  and  dry,  though  thunder-storms  and  cloud-bursts 
sometimes  occur  in  the  eastern  parts  in  July  and  August.  In  the  south- 
east the  thermometer  reaches  95°,  or  even  115°,  in  May  and  June,  and 
sand-storms  and  sand-pillars  are  common  on  the  plains.  The  general 
dryness  of  the  climate  is  shown  by  the  evaporation  of  all  the  waters  of 
the  numerous  streams. 

Forests. — The  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  lie  partly  within 
the  limits  of  the  state,  and  are  its  chief  lumber  region.  They  are  cov- 
ered with  heavy  forests  of  pine,  spruce,  fir,  and  other  trees,  which  are 
rapidly  disappearing  under  the  great  demand  for  mining,  metallurgy, 
building,  and  other  purposes.  White  Pine  Mountains  and  some  other 
ranges  in  the  east  have  a  considerable  amount  of  good  timber. 

Minerals. — Nevada  is  pre-eminently  a  mineral  state,  its  resources 
of  this  kind  being  extraordinary  in  variety  and  value,  and  inexhaustible 
in  quantity.  Silver-mining  is  the  chief  interest.  Veins  of  this  metal 
of  greater  or  less  value  are  found  in  nearly  every  mountain  range  in  the 
state,  some  of  those  already  worked  being  among  the  most  noted  and 
important  ever  known.  Prominent  among  the  hundreds  of  rich  mines 
are  those  of  the  famous  Comstock  ledge  of  Mount  Davidson,  in  Storey 
County.  The  ores  of  this  ledge  are  remarkably  rich  in  a  mixture  of 
gold  and  silver,  in  varying  proportions  of  about  a  dollar  in  gold  to 
three  of  silver.  Two  of  these  mines  together  furnished  more  than 
$100,000,000  in  the  five  years  from  1874  to  1878  inclusive,  and  from 
their  opening  in  1859  to  1880  not  less  than  $180,000,000.  Among 
other  rich  mines  in  the  state  are  those  in  Lander,  White  Pine,  Nye,  and 
Lincoln  counties.  In  these  mines  the  veins  contain  argentiferous 
galena,  silver  combined  with  lead.  Since  1858  Nevada  has  produced 
more  than  $350,000,000  in  gold  and  silver.  In  proportion  to  the  pop- 
ulation, no  other  community  has  ever  furnished  a  product  so  large  in 
value  in  so  short  a  time.  Other  metals  besides  gold  and  silver  are  of 
great  importance.  Eureka,  in  Eureka  County,  and  Tybo,  in  Nye  Coun- 
ty, are  the  centres  of  the  two  chief  lead  districts  of  the  United  States, 
the  lead  here  annually  produced  being  nearly  equal  in  total  value  to  all 
that  of  the  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Illinois  lead  regions. 

Rich  copper-bearing  veins  of  great  size  are  found  in  Washoe,  Humboldt,  and 
Elko  counties,  and  immense  masses  of  iron  ore  in  Nye  and  White  Pine. 
Salt  in  extraordinary  abundance  is  found  in  Humboldt,  Churchill,  Esmeralda, 
Lander,  White  Pine,  and  Lincoln  counties.  It  is  usually  in  beds  spread  over 
the  surfaces  of  low  valleys,  or  in  solid  crystalline  masses  beneath  the  surface. 
One  of  these  deposits  in  Esmeralda  County  covers  about  fifty  square  miles, 
from  which  millions  of  tons  of  pure  salt  could  at  any  time  be  shovelled.  In 
Lincoln  County  there  is  an  isolated  mountain  containing  immense  masses  of 
pure  rock-salt.  When  these  beds  and  mines  are  reached  by  rail,  they  will 
become  the  souice  of  immense  wealth. 

Among  other  valuable  minerals  are  extensive  beds  of  carbonate  of  soda  ;  great 
deposits  of  sulphur,  pure,  or  mixed  with  other  substances ;  extensive  plains 
covered  with  borate  of  lime,  the  source  of  the  borax  of  commerce  (the  beds  of 
this  substance  near  Esmeralda  appear  to  be  inexhaustible) ;  antimony,  arsenic, 
manganese,  plumbago,  and  alum;  kaolin  and  other  clays;  building  -  stone, 


marble,  and  glass  materials.  Seams  of  coal  have  been  found  in  White  I'ir.e 
County,  but  are  not  worked. 
The  state  abounds  in  springs,  cold  and  hot.  A  remarkable  group  of  the  latter, 
known  as  Steamboat  Springs,  is  found  in  Washoe  County.  The  temperature 
of  the  water  is  at  the  boiling-point  of  the  region,  201°  F.  ;  and  at  irregular 
intervals  bursts  of  steam  escape  from  the  orifices  wiih  a  loud  noise. 

Animals. — Of  the  wild  animals  the  principal  mammals  are  the  moun- 
tain sheep,  antelope,  bear,  wolf,  and  coyote  ;  among  the  birds,  prairie- 
chickens,  grouse,  and  quail.  Trout  abound  in  all  the  streams,  and 
salmon  are  found  in  the  branches  of  the  Owyhee.  Other  valuable 
fishes  have  recently  been  introduced  into  some  of  the  lakes  and  rivers. 

Agriculture. — Owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  climate,  the  nakedness 
of  the  mountains,  and  the  extensive  salt  and  alkaline  plains,  the  greater 
part  of  Nevada  is  irreclaimably  barren,  especially  the  southern,  north- 
western, and  southwestern  regions.  Many  of  the  valleys,  however, 
particularly  those  of  Truckee,  Carson,  and  Humboldt  rivers,  contain  a 
large  amount  of  land  suitable  for  agriculture.  A  still  greater  area,  es- 
pecially in  the  northern  and  eastern  regions,  is  well  adapted  for  stock- 
raising,  nutritious  grasses  and  the  leaves  of  the  white  sage-bush  furnish- 
ing abundant  food.  Many  thousands  of  cattle  are  annually  shipped 
to  San  Francisco,  and  this  form  of  industry  is  rapidly  increasing. 

Irrigation  must  always  be  the  chief  dependence  of  the  tillage  of  the 
state,  and  is  already  largely  practised,  especially  in  Washoe,  the  lead- 
ing agricultural  county.  Wherever  any  of  the  thousands  of  mountain 
streams  are  thus  employed,  abundant  crops  of  grain,  fruit,  and  vegeta- 
bles are  gathered.  In  this  way  millions  of  acres  in  the  valleys  and 
plains,  now  thinly  covered  with  bunch -grass  or  the  sage -bush,  may 
readily  be  made  highly  productive.  Even  in  the  south,  which  is  chiefly 
desert,  the  valleys  of  Las  Vegas  and  Muddy  River  are  thus  made  rich 
in  nearly  every  desirable  product  of  temperate  and  tropical  climates. 

Barley  is  the  chief  grain  of  the  state,  and  potatoes  the  principal 
root  crop.  Besides  the  increase  of  cattle  and  sheep,  the  chief  animal 
products  are  butter  and  wool. 

Commerce. — Nevada  is  crossed  from  northeast  to  southwest  by  the 
Central  Pacific  Railroad,  which,  with  a  net-work  of  telegraph  wires,  fur- 
nishes the  chief  connection  with  the  commerce  and  trade  of  the  rest  of 
the  world.     Three  roads  branch  from  the  main  line. 

The  Virginia  and  Truckee  road  from  Reno,  through  Carson  and  Gold  Hill, 
to  Virginia  City,  ,52  miles,  with  a  short  branch,  the  Eureka  Mill  road,  IJj 
miles;  the  Eureka  and  Palisade  road,  narrow  gauge,  from  Palisade  to 
Eureka,  85  miles,  with  a  short  branch  to  Ruby  Hill  ;  and  the  Battle  Moun- 
tain and  Austin  road  from  Battle  Mountain  to  Austin,  00  miles.  There  is 
also  a  short  narrow-gauge  road  from  Pioche  to  Bullionville,  20  miles,  for 
carrying  ores,  and  another  from  Lake  Tahoe  to  the  summit  of  the  east  ridge 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  where  it  connects  with  a  great  V  flume  which  carries 
timber  to  Carson  Valley.  There  are  many  such  flumes  in  the  state.  Some 
of  them  are  many  miles  in  length.  The  long  valleys  and  numerous  passes 
make  it  easy  to  construct  both  railways  and  wagon  roads,  and  stage  lines 
connect  the  railways  with  all  the  mining  districts  of  the  st.ite. 

Political  Organization.  —  The  executive  officers  of  the  state  are  a 
Governor,  Lieutenant-Governor,  Secretary  of  State,  Treasurer,  Con- 
troller, Surveyor -General,  Attorney  -  General,  and  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction.  Each  of  these  officers  is  elected  for  a  term  of 
four  years. 

The  legislative  department  consists  of  a  Senate  of  twenty-five  mem- 
bers, elected  for  four  years,  and  an  Assembly  of  fifty  members,  elected 
for  two  years. 

The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  District  Courts, 
and  Justices  of  the  Peace.     All  the  judges  are  elected. 

Nevada  is  entitled  to  two  Senators  and  one  Representative  in  Con- 
gress, and  therefore  has  three  electoral  votes. 

The  state  comprises  fourteen  counties.  The  chief  cities  and  towns 
are  the  following : 

Virginia  City,  in  Storey  County,  is  the  largest  city  in  the  state,  and 
the  most  important  mining  town  in  the  world.     It  is  built  along  the 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   NEVADA. 


25 


Comstock  ledge,  on  the  precipitous  eastern  slope  of  Mount  Davidson, 
at  an  elevation  of  about  6200  feet  above  the  sea.  The  discovery  of  the 
silver-bearing  rock  in  1S59  quickly  led  to  the  formation  of  the  state  of 
Nevada  out  of  an  unknown  wilderness.  Virginia  City  soon  grew  to  be 
a  large  town,  but  afterwards  declined,  until  the  discovery  of  the  chief 
treisures  of  the  Comstock  in  1870.  It  then  rapidly  increasea  in  pop- 
ulation and  wealth.  The  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  are  employed 
in  the  deep  mines  that  are  under  and  near  the  city.  The  product  of 
these  mines  varies  in  amount,  and  has  been  as  high  as  $30,000,000  in 
a  single  year.     Population,  13,705. 

In  the  vicinity  is  the  Sntro  Tnnne].  This  is  a  remarknble  engineering  work  in- 
tended to  drain,  ventilate,  and  extend  the  mines  of  the  Comstock  ledge.  A 
tunnel  14  feet  wide  and  12  feet  high  is  cut  through  solid  rock  commencing  in 
the  Carson  River  Valley.  It  is  nearly  4  miles  long,  and  first  meets  the  mines 
at  a  depth  of  1C.50  feet  below  the  surface.  It  is  intended  to  continue  it  by 
branches  to  the  leading  mines,  and  that  it  shall  reach  the  mines  under 
Virginia  City  at  about  2000  feet  below  the  streets.  Its  cost  was  about 
$.5,000,000. 

Carson,  in  Ormsby  County,  on  the  Virginia  and  Truckee  Railroad, 
is  the  capital  of  the  state.  It  is  pleasantly  and  romantically  situated 
in  Eagle  Valley,  four  miles  from  Carson  River,  and  in  the  midst  of  a 
fertile  section.  The  lofty  snow-crowned  Sierra  Nevada  rises  abruptly 
from  the  western  side  of  the  valley,  its  slopes  green  with  pines,  and  the 
broad  valley  of  the  Carson  stretches  away  to  the  north.  The  Capitol 
and  the  United  States  Branch  Mint  are  large  and  beautiful  buildings. 
Population  4227. 

Gold  Hill,  in  Storey  County,  is  on  the  Virginia  and  Truckee  Rail- 
road, one  mile  south  of  Virginia  City,  and  on  the  line  of  the  Comstock 
ledge.  It  is  built  in  a  deep  precipitous  canon,  and  is  named  from  the 
large  amount  of  gold  in  the  silver  ore.  There  are  many  important 
mines  within  the  limits  of  the  town,  and  inany  quartz  mills.  Gold  Hill 
and  Virginia  City  are  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  pure  water  from 
the  Sierra  Nevada  by  an  extraordinary  piece  of  hydraulic  engineering. 
From  an  elevated  point  in  the  mountain  the  water  is  brought  by  a  large 
flume  to  the  upper  end  of  a  strong  iron  pipe,  seven  miles  long.  Through 
this  it  descends  and  ascends  the  walls  of  twelve  steep  canons  in  a  series 
of  siphons,  and  finally  descends  and  crosses  a  deep  gorge,  and  ascends 
the  cliff  on  its  eastern  side  to  the  height  of  1540  feet,  whence  a  second 
flume  conducts  it  to  a  reservoir  for  distribution.  It  furnishes  about 
two  millions  of  gallons  a  day.     Population,  6000. 


Austin — in  Lander  County,  near  the  centre  of  the 
state.  Centre  of  trade  of  Reese  River  mining 
district.  Many  silver-mines  ;  some  very  pro- 
ductive. Railroad  to  Battle  Mountain.  Pop- 
ulation. 22.'>0. 

Battle  Mountain— in  Lander  County,  on  Central 
Pacific  Railroad,  at  junction  of  Reese  River 
Valley  with  Humboldt  Valley.  Depot  for  a 
large  number  of  mining  districts.  Railroad 
to  Austin,  r^hips  large  amounts  of  ores  of 
lead,  copper,  and  silver.  Also  principal  depot 
in  the  state  for  the  shipment  of  wool.  Pop- 
ulation. t»21. 

Belmont — in  Nye  County,  in  the  heart  of  a  rich  sil- 
ver section.  Many  mining  camps.  Large 
quartz  mills.     Population,  309. 

KlitO — in  Elko  County,  on  Central  Pacific  Railroad 
and  north  bank  of  Humboldt  River.  Im- 
portant depot  for  the  transshipment  of  mer- 
chandise and  passengers  for  many  mining 
districts,  site  of  the  State  University.  A 
number  of  medicinal  hot  springs  in  the  vi- 
cinity.    Population,  S2G. 


Eureita— in  Eureka  County.  Centre  of  one  of  the 
richest  mining  diitricts.  Ores,  chiefly  galena, 
bearing  silver,  gold,  and  copper.  Several 
stamp-mills  and  furnaces.  Products  some- 
times $4,tM)0,000  a  year.  Narrow-gauge  rail- 
road to  Palisade. .  L.-irge  trade  ;  surrounded 
by  good  graziu'"  country.     Population,  4207. 

Hamilton — in  White  Pine  County.  On  the  north- 
em  slope  of  Treasure  Hill.  In  the  midst  of 
a  rich  milling  district.  Large  trade  with  min- 
ers. Ores  are  chlorides  and  galena.  Pop- 
ulation, '.100. 

Palisade — in  Eureka  County,  on  Central  Pacific 
Railroad.  Important  point  for  transship- 
ments for  mining  districts  by  Eureka  and 
Palisade  Railroad.     Population,  252. 

Pioclie  —in  Lincoln  County,  in  the  Ely  mining  dis- 
trict. Distinguished  for  the  richness  of  its 
silver-bearing  veins.  Neighboring  moun- 
tains forest-ciad.  Fine  Mormon  farms  in  the 
vicinity.  A  railrohd  to  BuIIionville  is  chiefly 
employed  in  transporting  ores  to  the  mills 
there.     Population,  SIO. 


UenO— in  Washoe  County.  Important  station  and 
distributing  point  on  the  Central  Pacific  Rail- 
road. On  Truckee  River,  at  base  of  Sierra 
Nevada.  Truckee  River  a  great  water-pow- 
er. , Extensive  iniil  and  reduction  works.  Pop- 
ulation, 3000. 

Sllrer  City— in  Lyon  County.  Gold  in  the  deep 
canons  near  its  mouth  in  Carson  Valley. 
Near  Comstock  ledge.  Many  mills.  Large 
iron  foundry.     Population,  017. 


Winnemucca  -  in  Humboldt  County,  on  tv-.c  Cen- 
tral Pacific  Railroad.  On  Humboldt  River, 
at  mouth  of  Whites  Canon  Creek.  Centre 
of  considerable  trade  to  mining  towns  and 
agricultural  valleys  of  Nevada,  and  to  the 
principal  towns  in  southwestern  Idaho.  Con- 
siderable arable  land  along  the  river.  An 
important  point  of  shipment  of  cattle.  Exten- 
sive workshops  of  Central  Pacific  Railroad. 
Population,  1100. 


Among  other  places  of  considerable  importance  are  Ruby  Valley,  Cornucopia, 
Mineral  Hill,  Caiiin,  and  Mountain  City,  in  Elko;  Treasure  City  and  Cherry 
Creek,  in  White  Pine ;  BuIIionville,  in  Lincoln  ;  Aurora  and  Columbus,  in 
Esmeralda ;  Genoa,  in  Douglas  ;  Wadsworth,  in  Washoe  ;  and  Unionville, 
in  Humboldt  County.  All  but  Genoa,  Wadsworth,  Carlin,  and  Ruby  Valley 
are  mining  towns. 

Education. — Though  the  state  is  yet  new  and  the  population  small 
and  scattered,  an  excellent  system  of  public  instruction  has  been  founded, 
and  considerable  progress  made  in  its  development.  A  graded  system 
of  supervision  embraces  the  State  Board  of  Education,  consisting  of  the 
State  Superintendent,  the  Governor,  and  the  Surveyor-General ;  the 
several  county  superintendents ;  and  the  local  boards  of  trustees  in  the 
various  districts.  The  law  requires  the  schools  to  be  open  at  least  six 
months  in  the  year,  and  that  all  children  between  8  and  14  years  of 
age  shall  attend  school  at  least  16  weeks  in  each  year. 

Elko,  Virginia  City,  and  Gold  Hill  have  each  a  Public  High  School, 
and  the  State  University  has  recently  been  begun  at  Elko  by  the  open- 
ing of  a  Preparatory  Department.  Other  institutions,  of  a  high  order, 
are  intended  to  form  parts  of  the  general  system,  but  have  not  yet  been 
established. 

History. — Nevada  is  a  part  of  the  extensive  territory  ceded  to  the 
United  States,  in  1848,  at  the  close  of  the  Mexican  War.  It  formed  a 
part  of  Utah  until  March  2,  1861,  when  Congress  established  it  as  a 
separate  territory.  After  various  additions  to  its  limits,  it  was  admit- 
ted as  a  state  on  the  31st  of  October,  1864. 

The  first  settlements  within  the  limits  of  the  state  were  made  in 
1848  in  Carson,  Eagle,  and  Washoe  valleys  by  Mormons.  Ip  1849 
gold  was  found  near  Dayton,  in  Lyon  County,  and  the  search  thus 
stimulated  led  to  the  discovery,  in  1 859,  of  the  rich  silver-bearing  ledge 
now  famous  as  the  Comstock  lode.  The  growth  of  Nevada  dates  from 
this  discovery.  A  long-continued  mining  excitement  followed,  and  led 
to  extensive  explorations  of  previously  unknown  regions.  Thus  were 
found  the  rich  mines  of  Esmeralda,  Humboldt,  Reese  River,  Pahrana- 
gat.  White  Pine,  and  many  others.  Numerous  well-travelled  roads  now 
lead  through  most  parts  of  the  state ;  and  cities  and  towns,  farms  and 
mining  camps,  exist  where  recently  there  was  only  a  silent  and  barren 
wilderness. 

The  discovery  of  the  Comstock  lode  was  only  second  in  importance 
to  the  discovery  of  gold  by  Marshall  at  Coloma,,  eleven  years  before, 
and  determined  the  route  and  hastened  the  construction  of  the  great 
transcontinental  railroad  ;  and  the  treasures  of  the  Silver  State  have 
not  only  greatly  assisted  the  embarrassed  finances  of  the  United  States, 
but  have  also  largely  aided  and  stimulated  the  commerce  of  the  world, 
and,  in  this  way,  advanced  the  general  good  of  mankind. 


Que.stions. — Describe  the  situation  of  Nevada.  Its  surface.  Drainage.  Cli- 
mate. Eorests.  Minerals.  Name  the  chief  localities  of  silver,  gold,  lead,  copper, 
salt.  Other  minerals.  Name  the  principal  animals.  What  is  said  of  agriculture? 
CoiTimerce?  Describe  the  political  organization.  Describe  Virginia  City.  Carson. 
Gold  Hill.     What  is  said  of  education  .^    Give  an  outline  of  the  history  of  Nevada. 


from  ..IH  Greenwich 


I 


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Logan   ■*■  tP  i  Rand 


wlphl: 


Brlgl^am  City    "^^•g.I^^ 


MAP    OF 

XJ  T  ^  H 


Scale  of  Miles 

0       ft     10  20  ;10  4(t  50 


Onni  Infill  I 
0 

KnoliB  '^ 


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■g    >Carrington  ~ 


^^ 


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Capital 

County  Seat. 
City  or  Town 


^  Railroad 

®  River 

O  Stage  Routes 


FlPts"' 


I     0" 


G 


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>  ^ 


k  '.-p>.' ' 


Ml.Lena 


K    I 


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iflt.Horeb 


>:?l^  Johnson- 
■'■v.l-f         Pk. 


f^      t'ylB.S'Salt 


I-       X     (  >  -5^^^  *    : 


...Z. 


'^  S.,;.r  Cai;  UL/-V     Lovan/r,    ^  ?',  '       .,  •-  *      ^  ■'    - 


R   -s     D 
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jj-^  •■«««,    --'3-   <^f|^>        i     f" 


Mt  W  Iga  d 


Thousand  Lake-- 


^^spjr\^  ir   rs  u.      i*ie  ■■      '^-'^ 
yr 


t 


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C9 


C*^' 


li»    ■^•Nfj 


^     '^Otd&r  City 


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Mt. 

[Ellsworth 


■^. 


^S^ 


Kewl 


(*JS«», 


Tftm'i 


rA«mN0T0W  v*i 


oquerv. 


ItW*  j?t 


Santa  d&mVf 

t  Oeors 


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V  oj^un^^tJ.  \      ^  ock  iliu 


xletWi' 


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...      rw'      V 


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Longitude         35  West 


from 


Washlnifton 


Copyrij/Kl,  1881,  &y  Uiirptr  <t  Urothen, 


113  Longitude  115        West       from    ^     llj  GreenwlcTl  113  ^^ 


M   A   P     O   F 

I  33  ^  H  O 

Scale  of  Miles. 

0  10         2U         so         40         50         60         70         SO 


■TO  V!    M  I  .  A  TO-  A  T-Xf-lTa' 

Capital ij: 

County  Seat . . .   .    ® 
City  or  Town o 


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Kiver 


O 


f'Wountain' 


'"''X'/'*  liver  C  lty^7seC>^<JJ?sW> 


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rtnj/fir  BiKy       W  A  ^ 

y^       H    V&E       E 

JKg  Plains 


>i<i«"^'?*>uyn(s  ferry         0  T  "^         \ 


Coi-^rigU,  1881,  fy  llarptr  Jc  £r4jt}ieTi,. 


180        I/)ngitudc       170       West  from     180       Orconwlch        150 


103       Longitude         93       "West  from        83      Washlneton      73 


LCjpyriglit,  18S0,  by   HxKPJ^a  £i    BuoTutiiS.j 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP  OF  ALASKA. 

What  water  north  of  Alaska?  What  country  east?  What  water 
south  ?  What  sea  on  the  west  ?  What  strait  ?  What  peninsula  in  the 
southwest?  What  islands  southwest  of  the  peninsula?  Which  is  the 
most  westerly  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  ?  About  what  is  its  longitude  ? 
Is  Attoo  in  the  western  hemisphere?  What  islands  are  in  Behring 
Sea  ?  What  island  southeast  of  the  peninsula  ?  What  island  east  of 
Kodiak  Island  ?  What  volcano  in  the  southern  part  of  Alaska.  What 
mountain  ranges  in  Alaska  ?  Name  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Coast 
Range.  What  great  river  in  Alaska  ?  Into  what  water  does  it  flow  ? 
What  town  on  Baranoff  Island  ?    What  town  on  Kodiak  Island  ? 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP  OF  UTAH. 

What  territories  north  of  Utah  ?  What  state  on  the  east  ?  What 
territory  on  the  south  ?     What  state  on  the  west  ? 

Which  is  the  chief  mountain  range  of  Utah  ?  What  mountains  in 
the  northeastern  part  ?  What  mountains  in  the  eastern  part  ?  What 
desert  in  the  northwestern  part  ? 

Which  is  the  chief  river  of  Utah  ?  What  two  rivers  form  the  Colo- 
rado ?  What  branch  of  the  Colorado  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
territory?     What  river  in  the  southwestern  part? 

What  lake  in  the  northwestern  part  ?  What  river  flows  into  it  from 
the  north?  What  lake  southeast?  What  river  connects  Great  Salt 
Lake  and  Utah  Lake?  What  lake  southwest  of  Utah  Lake?  What 
river  flows  into  it? 


Name  the  counties  of  Utah.  What  counties  border  on  Great  Salt 
Lake?  In  what  county  is  Utah  Lake ?  Sevier  Lake?  What  counties 
are  crossed  by  Green  River?  By  Grand  River?  By  the  Colorado? 
What  counties  border  on  Arizona ?     Nevada?     Idaho?     Wyoming? 

What  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  five  towns  are  north  of  Salt  Lake 
City  ?  What  town  southeast  ?  What  two  towns  southwest  ?  What  three 
near  Utah  Lake  ?  What  two  south  ?  What  town  east  of  Sevier  Lake  ? 
Southeast  ?    What  two  southwest  of  Beaver  ? 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP  OF  IDAHO. 

What  country  north  of  Idaho  ?  What  territories  on  the  east  ?  What 
park  ?     What  state  and  what  territory  on  the  south  ?     On  the  west  ? 

Name  the  chief  mountain  ranges  in  Idaho.  What  river  crosses  the 
southern  part  of  the  territory?  Name  two  branches  of  Snake  River? 
What  lake  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  territory  ? 

Name  the  counties  of  Idaho.  What  county  in  the  north  ?  What 
counties  border  on  Montana  and  Wyoming?  On  Nevada  and  Utah? 
On  Oregon  and  Washington?  What  large  county  north  of  Snake 
River  ?     What  small  county  northwest  of  Alturas  County  ? 

What  is  the  capital?  What  three  towns  northeast  of  Boisd  City? 
What  town  southwest?  What  town  at  the  junction  of  Snake  and 
Clearwater  Rivers?  What  two  towns  southeast?  What  two  towns  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  territory  ? 

Name  four  mountain  ranges  in  Yellowstone  National  Park.  Name 
the  two  chief  rivers.  Through  what  large  lake  does  the  Yellowstone 
River  flow  ?     Through  what  canon  ? 


#■ 


14  DAY  USE 

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EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY 
LIBRARY 

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Mi^X_ 


Harper's  Introductory  Geography.  \ 

Harper's  School  Geograi'..y. 

Willson's  Series  of  Readers  and  Spell- 
ers. 

French's  Series  of  Arithmetics: 

First  Lessons  in  Nunibers. — Elementary  Arith- 
metic.^MenUl  Arithmetic. — Common -Scliool 
Aritlimetic. — Key  to  Elementary  Arithmetic. — 
Key  to  Common-School>Arithmi,:tic. 

Harper's  Language  Series: 

Swinton's  Langii.ige  Primer. — -Swinton's  New  Lan- 
guage Lessons. — Swinton's  New  School  Com- 
position.— Swinton's  New  English  Grammar. 

Tweed  and  Anderson's  First  Lessons  in 
Natural  History  and  Language. 

Swinton's    Studies    in    English    Liter- 
ature. 

Wentworth's  Arithmetical  Problems. 

Anthon's  School  and  College  Classics. 

S.mith's  Principia  Latina. 

Autenrieth's  Homeric  Dictionary. 

March's  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar. 

March's  Anglo-Saxon  Reader. 

Harpers'  Latin  Dictionary. 


EXT>I500K 


Scott's  School  Histories  of  the  United 
States. 

Harper's  United  St.\tes  Readers. 

Dalton's  Physiology  and  Hygiene. 

Hooker's  Natural  Science  Series: 

Child's  Hooks  of  Nature. — First  Book  in  Cheinis- 
try. — Chemistry.— Natural  Philosophy. — Min- 
eralogy and  Geology. — Natural  History. 

Comfort's  German  Series  : 

German  Primer.— First  Book  m  German.— First 
German  Reader. — German  Course.— German 
Reader. — Manual  of  German  Couvcisation. — 
Teacher's  Companion  to  German  Course. 

Rolfe's  Series  of  English  Classics. 
LooMis's  Mathematical  Series. 
Student's  Series  of  Histories. 
Hill's  Principles  of  Rhetoric. 
Orton's  Comparative  Zoology. 
Harper's  Greek  and  Latin  Texts. 
Quackenbos's    History  of  Ancient  Lit- 
erature. 

Newcomb's  Popular  Astronomy. 
Munson's  Complete  Phonographer. 
Liddell    and     Scott's    Greek  -  English 
Lexicon  (Revised). 


Liberal  terms  for  first  introduction.     Copies  for  examination  sent  to  teachers  and  school  officers 
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